HC1 PDF - European History Past Paper PDF

HC 1 After the war, 3 key points occurred: 1. Economic reconstruction of Europe: - Stimulated by the Marshall Plan o This was a profitable investment for the US ▪ America wanted to prevent the rise of communism ▪ Europe needed to become a rel...

HC 1 After the war, 3 key points occurred: 1. Economic reconstruction of Europe: - Stimulated by the Marshall Plan o This was a profitable investment for the US ▪ America wanted to prevent the rise of communism ▪ Europe needed to become a reliable trading partner for America ▪ America needed a new export market o Europe got financial aid from America 2. Militairy security - Europe is divided in a Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc (Communism vs Capitalism) - Establishment of NATO (1949) o Response to the Cold War o An attack on one is an attack on all - Warsaw Pact (1955) o Counterpart to NATO - Suez Crisis: o Great Britain and France lose control over the Suez Canal o The U.S. and Soviet Union became the new global powers o Europe chose to cooperate with the U.S. 3. Preventing nationalism: - Key lesson from World War II: Nationalism leads to conflict o Especially hostility between France and Germany - Economically connecting countries should prevent wars - Schuman and Monnet are looking for more integration. (Monnet: Ground father of EU) Establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) - 1951 - By ‘governments of The Six’: France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg - Idea: Germany can rebuild its economy, but no German domination (‘Alleingang’) - First supranational organization to which European governments transfer significant powers - Did not result in single market for coal and steel, but a first step European Economic Community (EEC): - 1955: More ambitious plan: the creation of a common market within 12 years - Removing all restrictions on the internal movement of people, money and services o Common external tariff for goods coming into the EEC o Common agricultural, trade and transport policies - International developments triggered more cooperation: to what extent could Western Europe rely on US? - First enlargement in 1973: Britain, Denmark, Ireland o 1974-1975: Portugal, Spain and Greece - Doubling of membership > increasing global influence of EEC + change of dynamics > reducing overall influence of Germany and France + economic balance changed Single Market & a European currency - No true single market without a common European currency - Controversial idea: reduction of national sovereignty + significant move towards a political union - International developments: end of the Bretton Woods system (1971-1973) - Single European Act was signed in 1986. Goal: removing all remaining barriers to the free movement of people, money, goods and services o Difficult in practice - Schengen Agreement Maastricht Treaty: 1. International events: fall of the Berlin Wall, German Unification, Collapse of the Soviet Union 2. How to integrate the former East Bloc countries in the European Economic Community? 3. Enlargement: Austria, Finland, Sweden (1995) 4. Pillars of Maastricht Treaty: o Economic and Monetary Union: euro and a European Central bank (+opt out) o Common foreign and security policy o Europol o EU citizenship o More power to European Parliament o Not: Political Union, Social Union. ‘First signs of euroscepticism Introduction of the Euro: - 2002 - 12 of the 15 countries replaced their currencies with the Euro - Logistically massive: o Billions of new bills and coins in circulation EU Expansion: - Biggest enlargement in the history of the EU o 2004: Cyprus – Czech Republic – Estonia – Hungary – Latvia – Lithuania – Malta – Poland – Slovenia – Slovakia o 2007: Bulgaria and Romania o 2013: Croatia - Fall of the Berlin Wall sparked optimism - Initially, there was a lot of enthusiasm about expanding the EU o Seen as an opportunity to bring democracy and prosperity to new countries Euroscepticism - In the nineties the first antipathy and actions against the European unification (‘ever closer union’) appear - The rise of right-wing populist parties, focusing on national sovereignty, xenophobia and protectionism: structurally attracting 15 – 25 % of the electorate - The accession of 12 new member states (2004-2007) , mostly from the east, increases the divide between the rich (and frugal?) north west versus the poverty (and easiness?) of the south and the communist past (weak state of law) of the east; this in spite of strict Copenhagen criteria for entrance - Rejection of the EU Constitution: o The Netherlands and France rejected the proposed European Constitution in 2005 i. This led to growing euroscepticism o This skeptical attitude was strengthened by the rise of right-wing populist parties opposing further EU integration under the guise of protecting national sovereignty and economic protectionism o The constitution became the Treaty of Lisbon o It retained many of the measures from the original constitution o 80-90% of the original proposal was preserved o Since it wasn’t called a "constitution," it faced less opposition Limitations of the EU: - Despite great successes, like open borders and a single market, there are still areas for improvement - There is a lack of a common defense policy o As well as a uniform migration policy - The EU mainly reacts to crises, such as during COVID-19 o Crisis-driven responses are not necessarily bad, according to experts o Others argue for more structure Double standards within the EU: - On one hand, there are common policy areas o For example, in health, climate, and culture o One market o One currency o EU citizenship - On the other hand, there is no uniform defense or migration policy o Countries can still have their own financial policy o No common migration policy - Countries want to maintain their sovereignty regarding migration - Populist parties make it harder to cede sovereignty o They advocate for less power for Brussels Future of the EU: - Brexit had a shock effect on countries considering leaving the EU - Despite anti-EU parties, such as those in Italy and Poland, Brexit has likely deterred further exits - More countries are still interested in joining the EU HC 2 Europese Commissie - What is the European Commission? The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. It can be compared to a government at the EU level. The Commission represents the interests of the entire EU, rather than those of individual member states. It is responsible for the day-to-day management of the EU and the implementation of EU policies. - What does the European Commission do? The Commission’s main task is to propose new EU legislation. Only the Commission has the right to submit legislative proposals, which means it plays a crucial role in the legislative process. Additionally, the Commission oversees the enforcement of EU laws by member states and ensures these laws are upheld if countries do not comply. The Commission also manages the EU budget and represents the EU in international negotiations. For example, in trade agreements between the EU and third countries, the Commission acts as the negotiating party on behalf of the EU. - Who is part of the European Commission? The Commission consists of 27 commissioners, one from each EU member state. These commissioners are not representatives of their home countries but are responsible for specific policy areas, such as the environment, trade, or internal affairs. Commissioners are appointed for a term of five years. Head of commission is Ursula Von Der Leyen. - Who is the head of the European Commission? The President of the European Commission is the leader of the Commission and plays an important role in setting priorities and coordinating the work of the commissioners. Currently, Ursula von der Leyen (as of 2024) is the President of the European Commission. - How much power does the European Commission have? The Commission holds significant power, especially through its exclusive right to propose legislation. While it cannot pass laws itself (this is done by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union), it plays a central role in shaping EU policies. The Commission also has executive power: it ensures that EU decisions are complied with by member states and businesses. - How democratic is the European Commission? The European Commission is indirectly democratic. Although citizens do not directly vote for the commissioners, they are nominated by their national governments and must be approved by the European Parliament, which is directly elected by European citizens. The President of the Commission is also proposed by the European Council and must be approved by Parliament. European Council - What is the European Council? The European Council is the institution that comprises the heads of state or government of the EU member states. It is not a legislative body like the Parliament or the Council of the European Union, but it sets the overall political direction of the EU. The European Council typically meets four times a year (the so-called "European summits"), but can convene more frequently in times of crisis. - What does the European Council do? The European Council sets the strategic priorities and broad political directions of the EU. It determines the long-term direction of the EU, for example, regarding economic strategy, foreign relations, and security policy. The European Council also provides major political impetus, especially during negotiations on sensitive issues like climate policy or migration. - Who is part of the European Council? The European Council consists of the heads of state or government of the 27 EU member states, the President of the European Council, and the President of the European Commission. The High Representative for Foreign Affairs also participates in meetings when external relations are discussed. - Who is the head of the European Council? The European Council has a permanent president, currently Charles Michel (as of 2024). This individual is elected by the heads of government for a term of 2.5 years, with the possibility of re-election. The President of the European Council is responsible for chairing the meetings and mediating between the different member states but does not have voting rights. - How much power does the European Council have? The European Council has a great deal of influence as it makes the key decisions on the EU's future and priorities. However, it cannot propose or pass laws; that is the role of the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Council of the European Union. The European Council primarily influences strategic and political choices, such as granting new powers to the EU or expanding the Union with new member states. - How democratic is the European Council? The members of the European Council (the heads of government) are indirectly democratically elected, as they are the leaders of national governments that are elected by their citizens. However, the President of the European Council is not directly elected by the public. Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) - What is the Council of the European Union? The Council of the EU (also known as the Council of Ministers) represents the national governments of the member states. Together with the European Parliament, the Council forms the legislative branch of the EU. The Council plays a central role in the Union's decision-making process, especially when establishing EU legislation. - What does the Council of the European Union do? The Council of the EU negotiates and adopts laws together with the European Parliament. The Council also plays an important role in coordinating policies between member states, for example, on economic policy, security and justice, and foreign relations. Additionally, the Council represents the EU in international negotiations alongside the European Commission. - Who is part of the Council of the European Union? The Council of the EU consists of ministers from the governments of the member states. Which ministers meet depends on the topic being discussed. For example, agriculture ministers will meet if agricultural policy is being discussed, and finance ministers will meet when discussing economic issues. - Who is the head of the Council of the European Union? The presidency of the Council of the EU rotates every six months between the member states. This means there is no permanent president. The member state holding the presidency chairs the meetings and plays a coordinating role between the different member states and EU institutions. - How much power does the Council of the European Union have? The Council holds significant power, as it can adopt and amend laws together with the European Parliament. The Council also has authority in areas such as foreign policy and security and can conclude treaties with other countries or international organizations. - How democratic is the Council of the European Union? The Council of the EU is indirectly democratic, as the ministers participating are members of national governments that have been elected by their citizens. European Parliament - What is the European Parliament? The European Parliament is the only EU institution directly elected by the citizens of the member states. It represents European citizens and plays an important role in the EU's legislative process. - What does the European Parliament do? The Parliament has three main functions: o It passes laws together with the Council of the EU. Although Parliament cannot propose laws itself, it can amend legislative proposals and vote on them. o It approves the EU budget and oversees spending. o It supervises other EU institutions, especially the European Commission. The Parliament has the right to hold the Commission accountable and can even force it to resign through a motion of no confidence. - Who is part of the European Parliament? The European Parliament consists of 705 members (MEPs), who are elected every five years by the citizens of the member states. The number of seats per country is based on population size. - Who is the head of the European Parliament? The European Parliament has a president, who chairs meetings and represents the Parliament in external relations. The current president is Roberta Metsola (as of 2024). The president is elected by the members of Parliament for a 2.5-year term. - How much power does the European Parliament have? The European Parliament has significant power in the EU’s legislative process, sharing decision-making with the Council of the EU. It can approve, amend, or reject laws and the EU budget, and holds the European Commission accountable. However, it cannot propose laws and has limited influence in areas like defense and taxation. Federalism vs Confederalisme The EU is like a state, it is independent, its territory is clearly marked, it has sovereignty and it has legitimacy (both the people of the country and others identify it as a state). Federalism: Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and individual states or regions, with both levels having certain powers independently. Examples include the United States and Germany. Federalism doesn’t have a fixed template though. - United States is a federal republic - Features federalism: o Difference with states in US and EU, is that countries in EU can almost do everything that US states cannot. For example, US states cannot make treaties. ▪ And the EU institutions have few of the power that the federal government of the US has. Yet, the EU has some key features of Federalism. o The EU has different levels of government, from European to local, each with some control over different areas of policy. o In certain areas like trade, agriculture, and social issues, EU countries have agreed to share power, and EU laws take priority over national laws. o The European Parliament, which is elected by the people, is gaining more influence in making laws for the EU, while national parliaments are losing some control as a result. o The EU has its own budget, which is smaller than most national budgets but gives the EU some financial independence. o The European Commission can negotiate with other countries for all EU members in areas where it’s been given authority. o Eighteen EU countries use the euro as their currency, meaning they have given control over their monetary policy to the European Central Bank (ECB) in Frankfurt. After the eurozone crisis, there has also been more shared responsibility for managing government budgets (fiscal policy). Confederalism Confederalism: Confederalism is a looser system where the central authority has limited power, and most of the sovereignty remains with the individual states or regions. The central government acts more as a coordinator of the states, which retain most of the governing power. Examples include historical confederations like the Articles of Confederation in early U.S. history or the European Union to some extent. And also, Switzerland was Confederal up to 1798. Features confederalism - Citizens of EU countries only directly engage with the European Parliament, which they vote for. The main EU institutions, like the European Commission and the Council of the EU, get their authority from the national leaders, not from the people. These institutions are either run by national leaders or appointed by them. - EU countries still have their own identities, laws, and can make agreements with other countries. They can also act independently in foreign policy and see the EU as something they participate in by choice. There isn’t one clear European government with strong central leaders, like a president or foreign minister. The most powerful figures are still the national leaders of each country. - The EU doesn’t have a Europe-wide tax system. It gets some money from levies and customs duties, but most taxes like income or property taxes are collected by individual countries or local governments, which also decide their tax policies. - There is no single European army. Each country’s military is still controlled by its own government, though there are small groups working together towards a European defense force. - Although the EU has its own flag and anthem, most people feel a stronger connection to their own country’s flag, anthem, and symbols. There has been limited progress in creating a shared European identity. HC 3 Hein de Haas Hein de Haas' Triangle is a conceptual model developed by migration scholar Hein de Haas to explain the dynamics of international migration. This model focuses on three key determinants that shape migration decisions and patterns: 1. Structural Factors (Macro Level): These are the broader socio-economic and political conditions in both origin and destination countries that create pressures or incentives for migration. Structural factors include: Economic Inequalities: Wage differences, labor market conditions, and unemployment rates. Political Context: Conflict, instability, persecution, or human rights violations. Demographic Factors: Population growth, age structures, and labor supply. 2. Agency (Micro Level): Agency refers to the capacity of individuals or households to make decisions and take action in response to their circumstances. This includes the resources, aspirations, and motivations people have to migrate. Factors related to agency include: Skills and Education: Qualifications and human capital that influence people’s ability to migrate and integrate. Social Networks: Family, friends, and community connections that provide information, support, and opportunities. Risk Tolerance: Willingness to accept the risks associated with migration, such as crossing borders and dealing with uncertainty. 3. Intermediary Factors (Meso Level): These factors mediate between structural forces and individual agency, including formal and informal structures that either facilitate or hinder migration. Examples are: Migration Policy: Visa regulations, border controls, and immigration laws. Migration Industry: Networks of intermediaries, recruiters, smugglers, and transportation options that enable migration. Social Capital: Community ties that connect migrants to their destination country and provide both material and emotional support. Interaction of the Three Factors: In de Haas' model, migration is the result of the interaction between these structural forces, individual agency, and intermediary factors. Migration decisions are not simply the result of poverty or conflict but are influenced by how people can mobilize their resources and networks, navigate policies, and assess opportunities. This model provides a more nuanced understanding of migration by integrating economic, social, and political dimensions at various levels. Fundamental Rights: Asylum is a fundamental right and an international obligation for countries, as recognized in the 1951 Geneva Convention on the Protection of Refugees. The Geneva Conventions are a set of international treaties that establish rules for the humane treatment of people during war. Adopted in 1949 and later expanded, they aim to protect: - Wounded and sick soldiers on land and sea. - Prisoners of war. - Civilians in conflict zones. The conventions prohibit torture, inhumane treatment, and taking hostages, and they ensure the right to medical care and protection for those not actively participating in hostilities. The Geneva Conventions form a cornerstone of international humanitarian law and are widely ratified by countries globally. Migration in Europe, 2015: In 2015, more than 1.2 million asylum applications were made in Europe. - This was twice as many as the previous year. - The increase was driven by wars in Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and African countries like Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan. - Thousands of people died at sea. - Migrants were traveling across Europe. Migration Context: In the past 30 years, we have seen a series of smaller and larger migration peaks. - This involves irregular or illegal migration, which makes up only a small portion of total migration (the majority are labor migrants). - About 3 percent of the world's population are international migrants, and only 0.3 percent are refugees or asylum seekers. These figures have remained stable for decades. There is no explosive increase in migration. - There has been an increase in the number of refugees in recent years due to wars and conflicts, for example, in Syria, Venezuela, and Ukraine. However, the global population has also grown, meaning the current level of refugee migration is relatively similar to that of the early 1990s: about 0.33 percent of the world’s population. Dublin Regulation: - The Dublin Convention is a European agreement that says the first EU country an asylum seeker enters is responsible for handling their asylum claim. This helps prevent people from applying for asylum in multiple countries. - Southern Member States: "We are under too much pressure. Because we happen to be on the external borders, we are responsible for handling the entire procedure." - Northern States: "Just implement better checks. Don’t let everyone in and don’t allow people to pass through easily." - Solidarity???? EU Trend: Externalizing Migration Policies - Shifting the responsibility for migration control onto origin or transit countries. - The EU is hardening its political stance on migration. - Rise of populist, anti-migration political parties. - Such deals are increasingly presented as solutions to the ‘crisis.’ - Examples: Turkey deal, Tunisia deal. But also with Libya, Gambia, Niger, Egypt, Morocco. - However, these deals are controversial, as they involve agreements with controversial regimes. Turkey Deal 1. What does the deal entail? The EU-Turkey deal, signed in March 2016, was designed to reduce the flow of irregular migrants into Europe, particularly through Greece. Under the agreement, all migrants crossing into Greece from Turkey illegally would be returned to Turkey. In return, the EU agreed to resettle one Syrian refugee from Turkey for every Syrian sent back, up to a certain limit. The EU also promised €6 billion in aid to support refugees in Turkey, along with commitments to speed up visa liberalization for Turkish citizens and reopen stalled EU accession talks. 2. Why did the EU want this deal? Turkey, due to its proximity to conflict zones like Syria and its position as a gateway to Europe, had become a major route for migrants heading to the EU. The deal was seen as crucial to managing the unprecedented number of asylum seekers arriving in Europe during the Syrian refugee crisis. 3. Why is it controversial? Critics, including human rights organizations, argue that the deal violates international asylum law by denying migrants the right to seek protection in the EU. Turkey has also been criticized as an unsafe third country for refugees, with reports of inadequate protections, poor living conditions, and the risk of deportation back to conflict zones. The EU's reliance on Turkey has also been seen as giving Turkey political leverage over Europe. 4. Does it work? The deal has reduced the number of migrants reaching Europe through Greece, but many migrants remain stuck in overcrowded camps on Greek islands, where conditions are poor. Turkey has periodically threatened to suspend its commitments, using the deal to extract more concessions from the EU, making the arrangement unstable in the long term. Tunisia Deal 1. What does the deal entail? In July 2023, the EU and Tunisia signed a deal aimed at curbing irregular migration across the Mediterranean. The EU agreed to provide €1 billion in financial aid to Tunisia, to boost its economy, improve border management, and enhance cooperation in combating human smuggling networks. Tunisia also agreed to accept the return of Tunisian nationals denied asylum in the EU and to prevent more migrants from departing its shores. 2. Why did the EU want this deal? Tunisia has become one of the primary departure points for migrants trying to reach Europe, particularly Italy, following the destabilization of Libya. The EU sought to prevent further crossings and reduce migrant deaths in the Mediterranean by partnering with Tunisia to secure its borders and disrupt smuggling routes. 3. Why is it controversial? Human rights organizations argue that Tunisia has a poor track record in terms of protecting migrants, with reports of abuse and mistreatment of people in its detention centers. Critics also warn that Tunisia’s political instability and economic challenges may limit its capacity to effectively manage migration. The deal has been accused of prioritizing border control over migrant safety and well-being. 4. Does it work? While it is too early to fully assess the impact of the 2023 deal, initial concerns point to Tunisia's internal struggles potentially undermining its ability to control migration effectively. Additionally, the treatment of migrants within Tunisia remains a critical issue, with fears that the deal could exacerbate human rights violations without providing adequate protection for those returned. Libya Deal 1. What does the deal entail? The EU-Libya deal, established in 2017, focuses on supporting the Libyan coast guard in intercepting boats carrying migrants across the Mediterranean. The EU provides financial and technical assistance to Libya to improve its border control and strengthen its capacity to manage migration. Migrants intercepted by the Libyan coast guard are returned to Libya, where they are often placed in detention centers. 2. Why did the EU want this deal? Libya is a key transit point for migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa seeking to cross the Mediterranean into Europe. With political instability and conflict in Libya after the fall of Gaddafi, smuggling networks thrived, making Libya a critical target for the EU’s efforts to control migration flows. 3. Why is it controversial? The deal has faced widespread criticism due to the dire conditions in Libya’s detention centers, where migrants face overcrowding, violence, exploitation, and even reports of torture and slavery. Human rights groups accuse the EU of being complicit in these abuses by funding the Libyan coast guard, which returns migrants to these inhumane conditions. Libya’s lack of a functioning government also makes it difficult to ensure that migrants are treated safely and fairly. 4. Does it work? The deal has reduced migrant crossings via the central Mediterranean, but at a significant humanitarian cost. Migrants continue to be detained in brutal conditions in Libya, and the lack of oversight has led to ongoing reports of abuse. The reduction in migration has not been accompanied by improvements in migrant welfare, making the deal highly controversial despite its short-term effectiveness in cutting numbers. However: - People keep coming, but it’s becoming more dangerous, leading to more deaths. - Data shows that numbers are not decreasing despite stricter security measures. - Fences encourage human smuggling: smugglers will demand even higher prices. - It violates human rights: everyone has the right to apply for asylum. - A fence in one country shifts migration flows to another country without a fence. - The entire EU border cannot be sealed off with fences. - "Fortress Europe." Arguments for Fences: - Better control over who enters. - Fewer people entering the EU, reducing pressure on reception facilities. - A signal to the outside world: you cannot simply enter the EU (deterrence effect). Pushbacks: - Collective expulsion and forced removal across borders, often with violence. - The EU is guilty of human rights violations: o Migrants are denied the right to tell their individual stories. o Migrants are denied the opportunity to file for protection. o This is in violation of the UN Refugee Convention: everyone has the right to apply for asylum. o Minors cannot be returned. o Countries like Italy, France, Lithuania, Hungary, and Croatia are guilty of this. These pushbacks and the fact that not every refugee get’s a change to apply for asylum make it a hot topic for human right organizations. All those regulations sometimes lead to more death, also because more people try to get in through illegal migration, which of course is even more dangerous. At Sea: - Many migrants are still dying at sea. - The right-wing Italian government, led by Prime Minister Meloni, passed a new law earlier this year. o Longer missions by aid organizations are now prohibited. o Doctors Without Borders, for example, operates a ship that can accommodate 300 people. ▪ However, they are required to return to port after each mission. They are not allowed to remain at sea for extended periods, or they face heavy fines (10,000-50,000 euros). - Italy’s stance: Aid organizations at sea act as a pull factor for migrants: 'taxis' that pick up migrants off the Libyan coast and bring them to Italy. - Migration Policy Centre: There is no correlation between the number of people crossing the sea and the presence of aid organizations. Weather conditions are a much more determining factor. What has been decided by EU so far? - 1999: EU established Common European Asylum System (CEAS) EU countries have a shared responsibility to welcome asylum seekers in a dignified manner, ensuring that they are treated fairly, and their case is examined following uniform standards. 2020: European Commission proposal. - Comprehensive approach to migration and asylum policy based on three main pillars: o efficient asylum and return procedures, o solidarity and fair share of responsibility and o strengthened partnerships with third countries ▪ However: EU countries cannot agree on the concrete interpretation of these ideals HC 4 Why Farmers Are Protesting Farmers in Europe are protesting for several reasons: - Higher Costs, Lower Incomes: o Since Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, prices for essentials like fuel, fertilizer, and transport have risen. At the same time, governments are trying to keep food prices low to help consumers, which has led to a 9% drop in the prices farmers get for their products between 2022 and 2023. - Unfair Competition: o The EU allowed Ukraine to export agricultural products without taxes to help during the war, flooding European markets, especially in Eastern Europe, with cheap goods. Farmers in other parts of Europe are also upset about low-cost imports from countries like New Zealand and Chile, where farming regulations are less strict than in the EU. Environmental Impact of Agriculture - European agriculture significantly affects the environment: o Water Usage: ▪ Agriculture uses one-third of the available water in Europe, even though many regions are already facing drought. o Greenhouse Gas Emissions: ▪ The sector is responsible for 10% of the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions and uses a large number of pesticides, which harms biodiversity and contaminates soil and water. EU Money for Agriculture Despite farming only accounting for 1.4% of the EU’s GDP, a substantial portion of the EU budget is allocated to agriculture. This large funding allocation is historically rooted: - Post-War Food Security: o After World War II, ensuring food security became a priority because many Europeans had experienced hunger during the war. At the time, 20% of Europeans were employed in farming (today, it’s only 2%). The EU introduced the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 1962 to protect farmers and guarantee stable food production. - Subsidies and Protection: o The CAP initially provided minimum price guarantees for farmers’ products, regardless of global market prices. This protected European farmers and helped stabilize food supplies. However, it also led to overproduction and high costs for consumers. How Farm Subsidies Became Entrenched in European Politics The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) became deeply rooted in EU politics because of its importance in post-war Europe. The CAP protected farmers from market fluctuations by guaranteeing minimum prices and shielding them from cheaper imports using import tariffs and export subsidies. - Positive Outcomes: o The CAP increased production, stabilized markets, and ensured that farmers had steady incomes. As a result, the EU became the world’s largest exporter of agricultural goods. - Problems with the CAP: o However, the policy also led to overproduction, which created large stocks of unsellable products. It caused environmental problems by encouraging the overuse of pesticides and high levels of production. Additionally, consumers faced high prices because of the policy. - Reforms of the CAP: o To address these issues, the CAP was reformed. Instead of guaranteeing prices for each product, subsidies are now based on the size of a farm. Farmers can receive additional subsidies if they adopt green practices, such as converting land into nature reserves or following sustainable farming methods. Large Farms vs. Small Farms: Inequality in the System The CAP reforms, however, largely benefit large farms: - Economies of Scale: o The more land a farmer owns, the more subsidies they receive. This incentivizes the growth of large farms, which can afford expensive machinery and produce food more efficiently. - Challenges for Small Farms: o Small farms struggle to meet the environmental requirements to qualify for subsidies. They often cannot afford the investments needed to adopt greener technologies. As a result, there is significant inequality: large farms receive most of the subsidies, while smaller farms are left behind. The EU’s Green Deal and Agriculture In 2020, the EU introduced the Green Deal, which aims to make Europe climate-neutral by 2050. This includes reducing pollution and promoting sustainable practices across all industries, including agriculture. Key Green Deal goals for agriculture include: - Reducing the use of pesticides. - Cutting food waste. - Encouraging people to eat less meat and switch to more plant-based diets. However, many farmers feel overburdened by these new regulations, and their protests have led the EU to water down some of the Green Deal’s initiatives. For example, the targets for reducing emissions in the beef and dairy sectors were lowered, and plans to reduce pesticide use were scaled back. Why Farmers’ Protests Are Growing Farmers’ protests have been escalating for several reasons: 1. Upcoming European Elections: o Elections are approaching, and politicians don’t want to alienate farmers. Populist parties that support farmers are gaining popularity in rural areas, further adding to political pressure. 2. Cultural Divide: o The protests highlight a growing divide between rural farmers and urban elites. Many farmers feel that they are being ignored by politicians based in cities. 3. Protest Success: o Farmers’ protests have already succeeded in forcing the EU to scale back some environmental policies, showing how influential the farming lobby still is, despite the small size of the agricultural sector. The Agriculture Policy of the EU The EU’s agriculture policy is complex and reflects deep historical and political ties. Key points include: - Agriculture Is a Shrinking Sector: o Farming employs fewer and fewer people in Europe. It’s a small sector today, making up only 1.4% of the EU's GDP. In some countries, it contributes as little as 5% of the GDP. ▪ Yet, for many decades, agriculture received the largest share of the EU’s budget—up to 50% in earlier years. Today, it still accounts for one-third of the total EU budget. - From Fixed Prices to Land-Based Payments: o Initially, the CAP guaranteed fixed prices for agricultural products. Over time, this system was reformed to offer subsidies based on the amount of land owned by farmers. While this was intended to encourage efficiency, it has led to an unequal distribution of funds, where larger farms receive the most support. - Focus on Climate and Sustainability: o In recent years, the EU’s agriculture policy has been increasingly aligned with climate goals, particularly through the Green Deal. o Balancing sustainability with the needs of the farming sector has proven difficult, as farmers continue to resist regulations that they see as costly or burdensome. - A Small but Powerful Lobby: o Despite the small size of the farming sector, farmers have a disproportionate influence in EU politics. ▪ They benefit from strong political support, particularly from conservative parties, and have a well-established lobby. ▪ This influence often results in policies that favor the agricultural sector, even at the cost of the EU’s broader climate ambitions.