Physics of the Atmosphere PDF
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2017
Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak
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This document is a learning guide about the physics of the atmosphere. It covers aspects such as the structure of the atmosphere, variations of temperature, pressure, density, and humidity. It also explains the relationship between these atmospheric properties and aircraft aerodynamics. This material was prepared by Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak on April 12, 2017.
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PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE April 12, 2017 LEARNING OUTCOMES On compleAon of this topic you should be able to: Describe about internaAonal standard of atmosphere. 1. Explain...
PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE April 12, 2017 LEARNING OUTCOMES On compleAon of this topic you should be able to: Describe about internaAonal standard of atmosphere. 1. Explain what is atmosphere and its structure. 2. Explain how is the temperature, pressure, density and humidity are affected within the atmosphere. 3. Explain about Interna=onal Standard Atmosphere and remember the figures involved. 4. Explain the rela=ons between Atmospheric Proper=es and AircraE Aerodynamics. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 2 9.1 ATMOSPHERE Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 3 Atmosphere Atmosphere comes from the Greek word, (Atmos = vapor) and (sphaira = Sphere ) The earth’s atmosphere is the layer of air that surrounds the planet and extends five hundred miles upwards from the surface. It consists of 4 concentric gaseous layers. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 4 Atmospheric Content Composi=on of air :-‐ | 78% -‐ Nitrogen | 21% -‐ Oxygen | 0.9% -‐ Argon | 0.03% -‐ Carbon dioxide | 0.0012% -‐ Neon | 0.0010% -‐ Water vapour Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 5 Atmospheric Layer The atmosphere is classified into regions based on the varia=on of temperature with al=tude. 4 Main layers of Earths’s atmosphere are: I. Troposphere II. Stratosphere III. Mesosphere IV. Thermosphere (Ionosphere) AircraE fly only in the Troposphere and the lowest part of the Stratosphere. Civil aircraE would rarely exceed al=tudes of 45 000 E (nearly 14 km). Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 6 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 7 ATMOSPHERE STRUCTURES VIDEO Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 8 9.2 ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 9 Atmospheric Temperature Air temperature undergoes considerable change as al=tude increases. Troposphere -‐ Gradual temperature decrease Stratosphere -‐ Gradual temperature increase Mesosphere -‐ Gradual temperature decrease Thermosphere -‐ Rapid temperature increase Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 10 Temperature o Decrease with increasing al=tude o Constant (-‐55˚C) above 55 000 E (12 km) o Decrease at a lapse rate of 1.98˚C per 1000 , o Standard day temperature at sea Sun radiate level à 15˚C / 59˚F heat o Temperature does not affect much through on aircraE in flight but it does affect atmosphere the varia=ons of humidity o Humidity affect flight opera=on Earth absorb heat (increase Warm air rises, expands, cools air temperature on surface) Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 11 Change of Temperature with Height Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 12 Troposphere The troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends up to 4-‐12 miles (6-‐20 km) high. This is where we live. As the gases in this layer decrease with height, the air become thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height. As you climb higher, the temperature drops from about 62°F (17°C) to -‐60°F (-‐51°C). Almost all weather occurs in this region. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 13 The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is around 11-‐12 miles (18-‐20 km) high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles At the poles it is just under four miles high. The transi=on boundary between the troposphere and the layer above is called the tropopause. Both the tropopause and the troposphere are known as the lower atmosphere. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 14 Stratosphere The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to 31 miles above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 per cent of the atmosphere's gases and but very lijle water vapour. Temperature increases with height as radia=on is increasingly absorbed by oxygen molecules which leads to the forma=on of Ozone. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 15 The temperature rises from an average -‐76°F (-‐60°C) at tropopause to a maximum of about 5°F (-‐15°C) at the stratopause due to this absorp=on of ultraviolet radia=on. The increasing temperature also makes it a calm layer with movements of the gases slow. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 16 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 17 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 18 Effect of AlAtude on Temperature In the troposphere, the air is warmest when it is nearest to the Earth surface and it cools down with an increased in al=tude. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 19 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 20 9.3 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 21 Atmospheric Pressure Pressure is the measurement of force exerted on a given area. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 22 At sea level, the atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth at a force of 14.7 pounds per square inch (PSI). This means a column of air 1-‐inch square, extending from the surface up to the upper atmospheric limit, weighs about 14.7 pounds. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 23 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 24 Atmospheric Pressure Decreases with AlAtude Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 25 Image taken from FAA Handbook Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 26 The actual pressure at a given place and =me will differ with al=tude, temperature, and density of the air. These condi=ons also affect aircraE performance, especially with regard to take-‐off, rate of climb, and landings. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 27 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure is typically measured in inches of mercury (in.Hg.) by a mercurial barometer. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 28 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 29 Effect of AlAtude on Pressure Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in alAtude. AlAtude Pressure Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 30 As al=tude increases, pressure diminishes, as the weight of the air column decreases. On average, with every 1,000 feet of al=tude increase, the atmospheric pressure decreases 1 inch of mercury. To understand about pressure you also need to know about: Ø Gauge Pressure Ø Absolute Pressure Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 31 Absolute Pressure Absolute Pressure is the sum of the available atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure. Absolute Pressure (PSIA) = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 32 CalculaAon Example : Given (Gauge Pressure) = 150 psig (Atmospheric Pressure) = 14.7psi Absolute Pressure = 150 psig + 14.7 psi = 164.7 PSIA Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 33 Gauge Pressure Gauge Pressure is the reading taken directly from the gauge devices It is a pressure rela=ve to the ambient pressure. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 34 9.4 ATMOSPHERIC AIR DENSITY Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 35 DENSITY § ‘Air is compressible’ § Compressed air à more dense (less space occupied by air) § Density = measure of air thickness § Density varies directly with pressure Low al=tude à more dense High al=tude à less dense § Density at sea level is 1.225 kg/m3 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 36 Atmospheric Air Density Density is a property of majer that is unique to each substance. It is a measure of the mass of the substance in a standard unit of volume. Density = Mass ÷ Volume Units for density g/cm3 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 37 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 38 Effect of Pressure on Density Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume. Conversely, when pressure on a given volume of air is decreased, the air expands and occupies a greater space. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 39 Pressure Density Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 40 At a lower pressure, the original column of air contains a smaller mass of air. The density is decreased because density is directly propor=onal to pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the density is doubled; if the pressure is lowered, the density is lowered. This statement is true only at a constant temperature. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 41 Effect of AlAtude on Density AlAtude Density As al=tude increases, density decreases due to the decrease in the atmospheric pressure; The atmosphere is denser near the surface of the Earth and gradually becomes more rarified with al=tude. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 42 Half of all air molecule mass is found below 18,000 feet al=tude In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with al=tude, and have conflic=ng effects upon density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as al=tude is increased usually has the domina=ng effect. Hence, pilots can expect the density to decrease with al=tude. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 43 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 44 Effect of Temperature on Density TEMPERATURE DENSITY Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with temperature. This statement is true only at a constant pressure. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 45 Density affect the aerodynamic performance of aircra^ ALTITUDE HIGH Al=tude LESS Density Greater speed and distance LOW Al=tude GREATER Density Same Horsepower Less speed and less distance Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 46 Balloon Experiment The effect of temperature on density can be clearly observed using balloon experiment Cold Hot Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 47 In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with al=tude, and have conflic=ng effects upon density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as al=tude is increased usually has the domina=ng effect. Hence, pilots can expect the density to decrease with al=tude. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 48 9.5 HUMIDITY Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 49 HUMIDITY Humidity Amount of Water Vapor Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere or a gas. There are different ways to express humidity. It is the condi=on of moisture or dampness in the air Level of humidity depend on the temperature Higher the temperature of the air, more water vapor can be absorbed. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 50 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 51 Paranal Observatory on Cerro Paranal in the Atacama Desert is one of the driest places on earth. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 52 Humidity can be expressed as : Ø RelaAve humidity Ø Absolute humidity Ø Dew point Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 53 RelaAve Humidity Rela=ve Humidity is the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount of moisture the air can hold at a par=cular temperature, and normally it is expressed in percentage. Actual amount of moisture in the air Total amount of moisture the air can hold at certain temperature For example, if the current rela=ve humidity is 75%, the air is holding 75% of the total amount of moisture that it is capable of holding at that temperature and pressure. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 54 Example Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 55 In our region, humidity is very high and that is why when we sweat, it stays on our skin Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 56 In Arab country, humidity is very low and that is why we don’t feel that we are swea=ng because the water are easily being absorbed by air. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 57 Absolute Humidity Absolute Humidity is the actual amount of water vapor in a specific volume of air. This bojle represents one liter of gas at 37°C and contains 22 mg of water vapor. It’s Absolute Humidity is therefore 22 mg/L. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 58 Dew Point Dew is when water condenses at groud level because the air is saturated. The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature at which the air cannot hold any more moisture. Just like the water spills over the side of the full cup, when air is saturated, the excess water ‘spills over’ and builds up on leaves, cars, buildings or anything else that is surrounded by the saturated air. Dew point is a popular measure in weather forecas=ng since it is used to be able to tell how much moisture a storm could have. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 59 Measurement of Humidity A humidity monitoring device is called a psychrometer or hygrometer. Hygrometers may be designed for indoor or outdoor humidity monitoring use (or both). Hygrometer can be mechanical or electronic. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 60 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan 61 Abdul Razak Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In reality, it is never completely dry. The small amount of water vapour suspended in the atmosphere may be almost negligible under certain condi=ons, but in other condi=ons humidity may become an important factor in the performance of an aircraE. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 62 Water vapour is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the water content of the air increases, the air becomes less dense. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of condi=ons, if it contains the maximum amount of water vapour, it means that it is at (100% Rela=ve Humidity) Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 63 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 64 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 65 5 Water Molecules = 90u Atomic Mass 5 Oxygen Molecules = 160u Atomic Mass Total Mass = 250u Density = Mass/Volume Therefore Density = 250u/1m cube = 250u/m3 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 66 7 Water Molecules = 126 u Atomic Mass 3 Oxygen Molecules = 96 u Atomic Mass Total Mass = 222 Density = Mass/Volume Therefore Density = 222u/1m cube = 222u/m3 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 67 9.6 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 68 ISA & ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE Atmospheric condi=ons vary around the world and are also con=nually changing, daily, even hourly, and in addi=on neither pressure nor density decrease uniformly with increase in al=tude. It has therefore always been the prac=ce to base all measurements and calcula=ons rela=ng to aerodynamics on what is termed the Interna=onal Standard Atmosphere (ISA) which is based on observa=ons taken at 45 degree la=tude north and south. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 69 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 70 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 71 The standard atmosphere at sea level is a surface temperature of 59 °F or 15 °C and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury (inch Hg), or 1,013.2 mb. temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1inch Hg per 1,000 feet of al=tude gain up to 10,000 feet. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 72 It must be remembered that the ICAO Interna=onal Standard Atmosphere is an assumed state for the purpose of comparing aircraE and engine performances and calibra=on of aircraE instruments etc., and it is unlikely that the actual condi=ons on the day will conform to this standard. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 73 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 74 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 75 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 76 Q CODES CODE Meaning QFE Atmospheric pressure at a specified datum such as airfield runway threshold. When set, the al=meter reads the height above the specified datum. QNH Atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (may be either a local, measured pressure or a regional forecast pressure (RPS)). When set on the al=meter it reads al=tude. QNE Atmospheric pressure at sea level in the Interna=onal Standard Atmosphere (ISA), equal to 1013.25 mbar or hPa and used as reference for measuring the pressure al=tude. When flight levels are used as an indica=on of al=tude, 1013.25 hPa is used as mean sea level (QNH). Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan 77 Abdul Razak APPLICATION TO AERODYNAMICS The density of air has significant effects on the aircraE’s performance because as air becomes less dense, it reduces: A. Power because the engine takes in less air. B. Thrust because a propeller is less efficient in thin air. C. LiE because the thin air exerts less force on the aerofoils. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 78 Effect of alAtude on flight Al=tude affects every aspect of flight from aircraE performance to human performance. At higher al=tudes, with a decreased in atmospheric pressure, take-‐off and landing distances are increased, as well as climb rates. When an aircraE takes off, liE must be developed by the flow of air around the wings. If the air is thin, more speed is required to obtain enough liE for take-‐off; therefore, the ground run is longer. Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 79 Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 80 END OF LESSON Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 81