Chapter 10 Strain Theories PDF

Chapter 10 Strain Theories by James C. Hackler University of Victoria Slides prepared by...

Chapter 10 Strain Theories by James C. Hackler University of Victoria Slides prepared by Stephen Schneider Saint Mary’s University Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-1 Learning Objectives Describe Durkheim’s pioneering work on the relationship between crime and social structure, and understand the particular importance of his conception of anomie or normlessness. Discuss how Merton modified Durkheim so that anomie theory became a theory of relative deprivation, rather than a theory of a lack of social regulation. Consider that increasing the threat of punishment for elite misdeeds could affect public morality. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-2 Learning Objectives (cont.) Learn that punishment tends to be used where it has little effect and is rarely used where it has a greater likelihood of changing behaviour. Note that strains can arise from features in the society or from situations surrounding individuals. Understand the strengths and weaknesses and social policy implications of strain theories. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-3 Introduction Two theoretical perspectives have guided sociological scholarship on the relationship between crime and social structure: 1. Consensus perspective—assume a reasonable degree of agreement on things that matter in society. They also assume that social institutions such as the family, education, government, religion, and the economy normally all contribute to the smooth running of society. 2. Conflict perspective—criminal law reflects the interests of the powerful groups that create and enforce those laws. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-4 Introduction Social institutions all Strain contribute to the smooth theory fits running of society. the general Crime occurs when orientation something unusual of the happens that affects these institutions. consensus This results in strains, perspective stresses, and frustrations. that affect behaviour. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-5 Durkheim: The Functions of Crime and Anomie Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-6  Durkheim: The Functions of Crime and Anomie Durkheim was a French sociologist who wrote Division of Labour in Society (1893). He posited that social solidarity—shared goals that lead to a set of shared norms—is essential to most societies. Without norms to guide them, societies function poorly. He popularized the concept of anomie to explain crime in more advanced and differentiated urban societies. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-7 Durkheim: The Functions of Crime and Anomie Anomie and Normlessness In times of rapid social change, social solidarity can break down; there are no clear societal norms/values (Anomie) Heterogeneity and increased division of labour weaken societal norms, loosen social controls, and encourage individualism. When social cohesion breaks down and social isolation is great, society loses its traditional social control mechanisms and eventually suffers from a high rate of crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-8 Merton: The Gap Between Aspirations and Means Crime is the result of Merton applied the the gap between idea of anomie to culturally America situation in prescribed 1938. aspirations and the socially structured means of realizing them. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-9 Merton: The Gap Between Aspirations and Means Culturally prescribed aspirations are defined by culture and transmitted to members of the society. In America, material wealth and accumulation of money and status are seen as universal goals. The legitimate means of achieving these aspirations, such as schooling or good jobs, are socially structured. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-10 Merton: The Gap Between Aspirations and Means Access to legitimate means (education, good jobs) is difficult for poor and minority children. The strain resulting from the gap between goals and the means to achieve them may result in some innovation, usually deviance. When society encourages people to want things, but makes it difficult for certain groups to get them, members of these groups are more likely to turn to deviance. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-11  Merton: The Gap Between Aspirations and Means Micro-anomie: The individual is in a state of anomie. The individual places more emphasis on self-interest than collective values. The individual motivated to pursue self-interested desires and not think about the effect that pursuit has on the group. Konty (2005): those who favoured self-enhancing values over self-transcending values were more likely to have reported criminal and deviant acts. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-12  Strain as a Feature of Society (Rather Than of Individuals) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-13 Strain as a Feature of Society Bernard (1987) Strain/anomie are properties of social structures. Cultures that overemphasize monetary success and underemphasize legitimate means will have high rates of instrumental crime. If legitimate opportunities to achieve monetary goals are unevenly distributed, instrumental crime will be unevenly distributed. Structural features = pockets of instrumental crime Cultural features = high rate of crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-14 Strain as a Feature of Society Structural features: In societies in which structural features create an uneven ­distribution of legitimate opportunities—that is, in which there are many blocked opportunities—there will be pockets of instrumental crime, regardless of cultural values. Cultural features: When a culture emphasizes the ruthless pursuit of wealth, even if there is equal opportunity, crime will be widespread and such a society will have a high rate of crime. The United States and (to a slightly lesser extent) Canada fit this pattern. Strain as a Feature of Society Messner and Rosenfeld’s (2007) theory of institutional anomie: The American Dream emphasizes monetary success, but places less emphasis on legitimate means of achieving that success. Combined with the weak restraints on the means, this encourages people to use illegal means to obtain money and status. One institution—the economy—dominates all others. This emphasis has created a greater potential for crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-16 Table 10.1: Strain Theories (Societal) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-17 Responding to Opportunistic Crimes of the Powerful Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-18 Reactions to Crimes of the Powerful Traditional enforcement measures could be used more successfully to reduce crime by corporate leaders. The Canadian government’s response to abuse of power by corporate elites is weak. In North America, economic institutions remain dominant and have overwhelmed other systems (such as family, education, and politics) that traditionally helped curb criminal tendencies. Thus, North America produces higher levels of serious crime than those countries in which the institutional balance of power leans toward noneconomic institutions. Copyright © 20120 by Top Hat 10-19 Reducing Crime by Changing the Behaviour of the Elite Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-20 Reducing Crime by Changing the Behaviour of the Elite Reductions in the unethical behaviour of corporate executives and other powerful people would lead to a reduction in all crime, including street crimes. Must target the frequent acts of immorality that make up the bulk of the “morality curve.” If the CJS sent a message to powerful people —the role models in our society—that some behaviours are wrong, it would have an impact on many in society and would move the morality curve to the left. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-21 Figure 10.1: The Morality Curve Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-22 Generalizing Merton’s Strain Theory to Other Cultures Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-23  Generalizing Merton’s Strain Theory to Other Cultures Merton’s argument fits more than economic institutions (it also provides clues as to how the world can be changed). Cheng (2011): The concept of “face”(wealth and power) is important to the Chinese scholar. In this context, a brilliant scholar who lacks wealth does not receive the same respect as one who may use their academic achievements to accumulate wealth. Thus, there is pressure to cheat. Unethical professors then become role models for unethical students and contribute to deviant behaviour to achieve the “Chinese Dream.” By contrast, honest professors who are content with the real satisfactions of an academic life and who take pride in seeing their students do well as ethical individuals may move the morality curve to the left. Just rules, respect for theCopyright law, ©and ethical behaviour by society’s 2020 by Top Hat 10-24  Strain as a Feature of Individuals Agnew (2002) considered strain on individuals and the resulting impact on delinquency. Strain can be experienced directly, but it can also be anticipated and vicarious. For example, if one anticipates being attacked on the way to school, one may skip school, which could lead to other problems. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-25  Strain as a Feature of Individuals Strains are more likely to lead to delinquency if they have certain Strain alone characteristics: does not High in magnitude always Unjust produce Linked to low social control delinquency. They may also lead to delinquency when the crime pays off, or when the strain is resolved through contact with people who are involved with crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-26 Strain as a Feature of Individuals High in magnitude: A juvenile being bullied for a long time, who expects that bullying to continue, may begin to bully others Unjust: Was a racialized student treated differently than a white student for similar behaviour? Low social control: Belief systems, ties to conventional institutions (e.g., school, the family), and group membership (e.g., on a sports team) link one to society and provide restraints from delinquency Strains are more likely to lead to crime if the crime pays off. If you need money, does stealing or selling drugs bring in enough to reduce the strain you feel? If it does not, it loses its attractiveness. Strains that are resolved through contact with people who are involved with crime, such as a group of boys who break into houses, are more likely to persist. The Shift from Control to Opportunity Structures Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-28  The Shift from Control to Opportunity Structures Durkheim’s anomie theory emphasized social cohesion and the social restraints that prevented crime. Merton shifted focus to opportunity structures: Over-riding dominant goal—material success—but that the guidelines for achieving that success were not always clear. But if this type of anomie was so widespread, why wasn’t crime distributed evenly throughout society? crime was distributed unevenly—that it was higher in urban slums, for instance. Anomie was shifted from normlessness to relative deprivation. The entire community was not anomic. However, specific individuals committed to the goal of wealth who were barred from the means to achieve it. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-29 Richard Cloward: Illegitimate Opportunity Structures Simply being subjected to socially generated strain does not enable a person to deviate in any way he or she chooses. People can participate in a given adaptation only if they have access to the means to do so. Even though members of the lower class may be under a great deal of strain, they are unlikely to engage in violations of financial trust, political corruption, and other white-collar crimes in order to achieve their goals because they lack access to the means of committing them. People under strain cannot become any kind of criminal they choose. They are limited by the opportunities available to them. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-30 Richard Cloward: Illegitimate Opportunity Structures Opportunity theory can help explain many types of deviance. Cloward and Ohlin applied their ideas to juvenile delinquency. Juveniles undergoing strain could be led to three different types of gangs or subcultures: 1. Criminal—profit-oriented crimes 2. Conflict—gang violence as a means of attaining status, at least among peers 3. Retreatist—substance abuse Race, or the city in which a youth lives, may also influence opportunity structures. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-31 Marginal Opportunity Structures Fred Desroches described the way some men adapted to pressures related to homosexual activity in public restrooms in Ontario (1995). The “tearoom,” a public washroom where homosexual activity takes place, provides an opportunity structure for those under certain types of strain. this marginal opportunity structure is used with the risk that police action will create additional problems in their lives. Street life in Vancouver offers another type of marginal opportunity structure. Negative family experiences increase the likelihood of “hanging out” on the street. The interactions among parental unemployment, weakened marital ties, neglect, and abuse increase the likelihood of crime directly; they also expose such youths to additional new stresses when they leave one negative environment for another. While seeking food and shelter on the street, these vulnerable youths meet seasoned offenders who coach the newcomers in criminal activities. Marginal Opportunity Structures It is not necessary to look only at illegal opportunity structures. Other deviant adaptations to illegitimate opportunities become apparent when one looks beyond traditional types of crime and at different settings. Examples include “tearoom” activity, street life, prostitution Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-33 Anderson (1999): The Code of the Street After World War II, many minorities gained jobs in manufacturing and moved into middle-class roles. However, as jobs were outsourced, the loss of well-paying, unionized positions hurt those at the bottom of the social scale. Young blacks, in particular, faced continued discrimination, with employers preferring white women or new immigrants for available jobs Barriers to participate in mainstream society persist for young black males. The lack of opportunity for legitimate employment leads to strain. In turn, this can lead to crime, gangs, and involvement in underground economy. The drug trade offers economic opportunity. However, it is organized around the code of the street, which employs violence for social control and thus contributes significantly to the10-34 Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat violence of inner-city neighbourhoods. Table 10.2: Strain Theories (Individual) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-35 Assessing Strain Theories Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-36 Assessing Strain Theories Durkheim shifted the focus away from psychological and genetic variables toward sociological ones, which are now dominant in theories of crime. Durkheim was wrong in viewing premodern societies as relatively crime free. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-37 Assessing Strain Theories Merton’s theories help account for social class differences in crime, but not gender differences. Strain theories offer insights into the unethical behaviour of individuals, gangs, and corporations. Recent scholars have used anomie theory to explain deviance in dictatorship countries that are moving in the direction of democracy. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-38 The Convergence of Strain Theory and Others Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-39 The Convergence of Strain Theory and Others Strain theory, differential association, and control theory complement one another. The policy implications of these different theories can also be similar, and include: Enabling the deprived prerson to participate more fully in what society has to offer is probably related to greater social bonding with others and a stronger belief in the rules that guide the larger society. However, when social bonds are primarily with people who rationalize criminal behaviour, and with those who face similar blocked opportunities, criminal behaviour is likely. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-40 Convergence of Strain Theory and Other Perspectives A vast oversimplification of these ideas might be as follows Learning theories (for example, differential association) explain delinquency by positive relations with deviant others. Social control theories: delinquency occurs when juveniles have little or no attachment to others. Agnew’s strain theory: negative relations and experiences in situations beyond their control lead juveniles to delinquency. All three conditions can reinforce one another and can have a reciprocal impact, increasing the Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-41 likelihood of criminal behaviour. John Braithwaite: Greater Class Mix and the Reduction of Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-42  Braithwaite: Greater Class Mix and the Reduction of Crime Only when legitimate opportunities are low and illegitimate ones are high do we get much crime. Belonging to the lower class has more effect on delinquency for youth in lower-class areas than for youth in middle-class areas. Consequently, cities with relatively large numbers of lower- class people living in predominantly middle-class areas and relatively large numbers of middle-class people living in predominantly lower-class areas have relatively low crime rates. That is, greater class mix results in less crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-43 Braithwaite: Greater Class Mix and the Reduction of Crime Reducing Upper-Class Crime Braithwaite also argues that “too little power and wealth creates problems of living, and this produces crime of one type; too much power corrupts, and this produces crime of another type” Powerful people abuse their occupational power. Upper-class crimes arise from an unprincipled overcommitment to success goals. Greater economic equality and a greater distribution of influence among people would modify to some extent those factors that lead to crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-44 Policy Implications Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-45 Policy Implications Crime prevention projects have used strain theories to change opportunity structures: They have provided legitimate opportunities for young people in poor areas through schooling and job training. They have provided early childhood education programs. They have developed a less coercive justice system, for example, through reintegrative shaming rather than the disintegrative shaming currently used. They aim to reduce the gap between rich and poor. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-46 Summary Strain theory is part of the consensus tradition. Social institutions contribute to the smooth running of society. Crime occurs when something unusual happens that affects some or all of these institutions. This results in strains, stresses, or frustrations that affect people’s behaviour. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-47 Summary Durkheim: crime and other deviance is a consequence of modernity. Changes lead to a weakening of social controls, and consequently rates of deviance increases. Merton modified Durkheim’s theory to account for the realities of American society. Crime results from the gap between culturally prescribed aspirations and the socially structured means for realizing them. Messner and Rosenfeld: American culture emphasizes monetary success. When combined with weak restraints on illegitimate means, this encourages economic crimes. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-48 Summary To reduce crime, one must respond to a wide range of unethical behaviour. Agnew: adolescents located in negative environments can become frustrated and angry. If legitimate alternatives are not available, violent outbursts and delinquency are more likely. Cloward: illegitimate opportunities are not equally accessible to all. There are three different types of delinquent subcultures: criminal, conflict, and retreatist. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-49 Summary Anderson: exporting manufacturing jobs overseas has made a bad situation worse in inner cities. As a result, young people have adopted a code of the street, whereby one gains status by being tough and willing to use violence. Early strain theorists focused on lower-class crime, but their work also applies to white-collar and corporate crime. Upper-class crimes can arise from an unprincipled overcommitment to success. Even successful people may feel pressure to make more money and may choose to break the law. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 10-50