LMGT211 Human Resources Management: Motivation and Leadership PDF

LMGT211- HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP UNIT OUTCOMES/SESSION OBJECTIVES: The students will be able to define motivation and describe the major theories of motivation. They must also define leadership within the context of the function of management and be able to recogniz...

LMGT211- HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: MOTIVATION AND LEADERSHIP UNIT OUTCOMES/SESSION OBJECTIVES: The students will be able to define motivation and describe the major theories of motivation. They must also define leadership within the context of the function of management and be able to recognize the tree factors that determine leadership success. MOTIVATION The term motivation encompasses many images. It implies the existence of incentives, motives and purpose. It also incorporates ideas about the drive, desires and needs of an individual. Motivation can be defined concisely as the reason people do the things they do. MOTIVE  Motive is not only the root word for motivation but also its essence. By identifying and understanding the motives and reasons why people work and what they are looking for in a job, we can develop a plan that matches the motivational goals of the individual and it can be matched with that of the organization. ATTITUDE Attitude in the workplace is a person’s outward disposition toward his or her job and coworkers. A primary goal of the manager is to help the staff develop and maintain positive attitudes toward the laboratory and its mission. MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Motivational theories can be divided into two broad groups: (1) content theories, which examine the internal forces that drive the individual to specific actions and (2) process models, which attempt to explain the person’s reaction to external stimuli. Content Motivational Theories Four content theories have gained wide respect in the business community: (1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (2) Herzberg’s two factor theory (3) McClelland’s achievement model and (4) Alderfer’s EGR theory. Maslow’s and Alderfer’s emphasize satisfaction of needs to explain motivational process. Herzberg, while still citing the importance of need satisfaction, propose that some workplace related factors can generate dissatisfaction to the employees, whereas others offer promise as motivators. McClelland’s achievement model lies the strength of behavioral motives to the individual’s assessment of the likelihood of achieving a specific goal. (1) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow in 1954 offered a theory that prioritized basic needs into five categories ranging from the most fundamental physiological needs to the most fulfilling, self-actualization. The primary needs take priority and must be satisfied before the secondary needs can be pursued. Primary or lower level needs include: Physiological needs: The most basic biological survival needs such as food, water, air, rest and sex Safety needs: Physical and psychological security and stability and freedom from deprivation, fear or threats. Secondary or higher level needs include: Social needs: Affiliation, affection, friendship, a sense of belonging, acceptance and being part of a group of peers. Esteem (ego) needs: Personal respect and independence, recognition for achievement and appreciation from others Need for self-actualization: The highest level needs, for fulfillment and realization of potential, both as a creative person and as a member of the society Maslow emphasized one point that the manager should keep in mind when applying the needs model to the workplace. Satisfaction at any one level is not enough. It just drives the individual to seek higher plane of accomplishment. (2) Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory This theory, like many other practical models, has generated considerable criticism from behavioral scientist because of its research methodology. Herzberg identified two groups of factors that play roles in job performance: (A) Herzberg identified two groups of factors that play roles in job performance: (a) hygiene factors (also referred to as “maintenance factors or dissatisfiers”) because they prevent job dissatisfaction; the other is (2) motivation factors (“motivators or satisfiers”) because they seem to stimulate employees to strive for superior performance. (3) McClelland’s Achievement Motivation David C. McClelland hypothesized that even though there are definite needs that provide explanation for behavior, the strength of a specific motive is directly linked to the opportunities offered by the situation. This theory holds that individuals have three work-related needs: a. The need for achievement (job and career success) b. The need for power (control and influence) c. The need for affiliation (warm, friendly relationships) Each person has the potential to act with a variety of options depending on the relative strength of a motive matched against the possibilities provided. This concept has been quantified in the model below to show the relationships between these factors: Aroused motivation = strength of the motive x perceived possibility of achieving the objective x expected value of the objective (4) Alderfer’s ERG Needs Theory Although similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Clayton Alderfer’s ERG model condenses the number of categories to three: Existence (E) needs: physiological, safety and other elements necessary to support existence (Maslow’s physiological and safety needs) Relatedness ® needs: interpersonal relationships, acceptance and belonging (Maslow’s social and part of esteem needs) Growth (G) needs: creativity, challenge and personal growth on the job (Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization) The ERG model contains several differences from Maslow’s needs hierarchy. One of the main variations allow a person to be operating at different levels at the same time and includes frustration-regression process: when an individual is frustrated in satisfying higher-level needs such as the need for personal growth, lower level needs (regression) grow in intensity. Alderfer’s ERG theory builds on several presuppositions: Needs frustration: The less a need is satisfied, the more the desire for it increases Frustration regression: The less successful one level is in satisfying a higher level need, the greater the importance of fulfilling the previous level. Satisfaction progression: As a person satisfies one level of needs, the desire for higher level needs increases proportionately.  Growth progression: The more growth level needs are fulfilled, the more intense the desire for additional growth. Process Motivational Theories The process approach, as noted earlier, seeks to understand how people are motivated, in contrast to the content theories, which are concerned with the internal motivational forces. Three primary process theories have achieved popularity: Vroom’s expectancy theory, Adam’s equity theory and Skinner’s reinforcement theory. (1) Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom proposed a theory of motivation that explains behavior as a process of making choices in direct response to the expected potential for reward. This concept developed from the opinion that humans are rational thinking beings who act in anticipation of their own best interest. The resulting motivational theory suggest that people behave: Effort will bring reward. The effort expended will be related to the perceived value of the reward to the person. Based on these assumptions, this theory concludes that people make choices between alternative courses of actions according to how they perceive the resulting benefits. Five variables have been identified that influence the selection decision: Expectancy: the belief that effort brings performance and performance leads to rewards. Outcome: the perceived expectancy that the outcome from the effort (reward) will actually be realized. Instrumentality: the degree of faith in the belief that current efforts may make possible achieving even larger or longer-term rewards. Valence: the value placed on the available rewards Choices: a quantified model called VIE equation (VIE is another label that is sometimes used for this theory), has developed to demonstrate the relationship between these factors and the likelihood of a person’s choosing to behave in a certain manner. Motivation (or effort extended) – valence x instrumentality x expectancies (2) Adam’s Equity Theory Equity theory holds that employees are motivated by the degree of equity that they perceive in their work situation. The key concept in equity theory is comparison and perception. Comparison can be inside the organizations as in wage rates of other laboratories. (3) Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory B. F. Skinner’s theory of motivation is based on the observation that we tend to behave according to the way we are treated. In principle it states that we repeat performances for which we are positively rewarded or we avoid actions that bring about undesirable consequences. This theory has been recipient of sharp criticism because its theoretical databases are drawn from the work of B. F. Skinner, a behavioral  psychologist whose studies are mainly based on the response of animals to harsh, often painful stimuli. The components of reinforcement theory include: The law of effect: This law, stated by E. L. Thorndike, states that we act in response to expected consequences. Stimulus: An event that influences or leads to a response. Response: Behavior that results from a stimulus. Reinforcement: The consequences of an action or response. It can be positive in nature and meant to bring about or encourage desirable behavior. Behavior modification: The application or practice of reinforcement theory, as expressed in the law of effect. Stimulus response reinforcement stimulus OTHER MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Among them are Douglas McGregor’s theory X and theory Y and W. Ouchi’s theory Z. Aside from these, researcher such as E. E. Lawler have explored the role of money in worker satisfaction of needs. Lawler pointed out the important link between performance appraisals, compensation and achievement of organizational goals. Many authors have built on the theoretic work of Erik Erickson and Chris Argyris about the relationship between maturity (age and life-stage development) and motivation. APPLYING MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES IN THE WORKPLACE Leadership, work and job satisfaction: Leadership is the application of motivational principles to the workplace. It relates directly to the role that the work itself plays in the motivational process. Job satisfaction is the degrees to which employees feel their jobs meet their needs and wants. It is directly reflected by absenteeism and turnover rates as well as the attitude and functional performance level maintained by the worker. Goal setting: Goal setting incorporates the themes in several motivational proposals, including expectancy, reinforcement and achievement theories. The most widespread examples of these techniques are management by objectives (MBO) and total quality management (TQA). Pay: The pay model focuses on the definition of pay. Two types of pay are awarded to the employees. The first type, material pay. Is the tangible or monetary part of the paycheck. The second, psychic pay consists of the intrinsic rewards that give us a good feeling about ourselves and our work. Material pay includes salary, fringe benefits, holidays, vacations and insurance while psychic pay is psychological in nature and includes pride in work, the feeling of acceptance by and belonging to a team and the positive feedback we receive from our boss and coworkers.  LEADERSHIP Leadership can be defined as the process of influencing the efforts of others to achieve designated organizational goals. This is the directing function in the management process model, to persuade, direct, inspire, guide and bring about a commitment to a common cause on the part of the participants. FACTORS LEADING TO SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP The institution’s bureaucratic structure or management style and culture provide the ground rules whereby leadership either flourishes or falters. Within the boundaries set by the organization lies not only on the opportunity for the development but also the restraints on growth. Corporate Culture and Delegation of Authority: Leadership is tied to both social and organizational expectations placed on managers. The corporate culture establishes the climate and rules under which management operates. These cultural factors are then reflected in the management style of organization and the way it delegates authority to its managers. The associated power of authority implies the ability to sanction others to ensure compliance with established rules, directive or objectives. Management Styles: Rensis Likert suggests that organizations have four discrete leadership system or management styles: 1. Exploitative and Authoritative: Managers view workers only as tools and means of production and feel no further obligation to them. 2. Benevolent and Authoritative: Managers feel they know what is best for their employees and need only inform and direct their actions, without seeking feedback. 3. Consultative: The manager feels the opinion and advice of the staff are useful but all decisions remain exclusive purview of the manager. 4. Participative: Input and responsibility for decision making are placed directly on the staff, or as close to the production process as possible, with only the general guidance and oversight from the management. PERSONAL TRAITS OF A LEADER Early studies made detailed analyses of the intellectual, physical, social and psychological qualities of successful leaders in both formal and informal settings. Charisma appeared to be common trait of informal leaders; investigators discovered that sometimes irascible and amicable leaders were equally successful in business settings. Aside from the personal traits, behavior of leaders has proven more productive and resulted in several widely accepted leadership models: a. Employee-oriented versus production oriented leadership styles In the late 1940s, the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan conducted research to determine which type of supervisory behavior led to the highest level of productivity and individual satisfaction in small work groups. Two  groups of manager arises, employee-oriented managers refers to supervisors with the best productivity levels in which he/she had strong ties to their employees, spent more of their time in actual supervision. Production-oriented supervisors, tended to emphasize high productivity at the expense of all other factors. They viewed their worker as only tools for use by the company in the manufacturing process and spent the majority of their time on production-related problems. b. Structure-consideration leadership styles Ralph Stogdill and later researchers such as Paul Hershey and Kenneth Blanchard found two principal dimensions to leadership behavior: initiating structure and consideration. Initiating structure is marked by emphasis on actively directing staff toward getting the work done: paying attention to assigning particular tasks, specifying and clarifying what is expected of subordinates and the uniformity of the procedures to be followed and personally deciding what and how work will be done. Consideration behavior is typified by the manager’s efforts to explain their action, treat workers as equals, listen to subordinates’ concern, look out for their personal welfare, give advance notice of changes and be generally friendly and approachable. c. Managerial grid It shows the relationship between a concern for people and concern for production. It was devised by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, shows that high concern for both factors is crucial to the successful manager. The managerial grid is influenced by five factors: 1. The attitudes and assumptions of the manager 2. The policies and procedures of the organization 3. The day to day operational situation 4. The social and personal values of the manager 5. Chance d. Theory X – theory Y and the associated Z model Theory X and theory Y model was proposed by Douglas McGregor in 1960. This concept is a close simulation of the widely observed Pygmalion effect so adamantly propounded in education circles. The principle, named after George Bernard Shaw’s play Pygmalion, states that students tend to learn and perform in the manner anticipated by the teachers. According to this model, Theory X managers believe that people: Are inherently lazy and dislike work Must be coerced into performing their duties by constant supervision and maintenance of tight operational control Have no ambition and little interest in improving their efficiency on their own and must be prodded to produce. Theory Y managers, by contrast, believe that: Work is a natural part of life  People have a high degree of ingenuity and creativity that they are eager to apply the job Worker potential is only partially tapped by the company Workers are self-learners and seek responsibility for their performance Workers exercise self control and self discipline if they are committed to a goal and the strength of this commitment depends on the reward associated with the achievement While managers holding theory Z assumptions believe that self controlled and self regulated characteristic of workers contained in theory Y is cultural and as a result, changing societal goals must be included in today’s workplace. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELS (A) Contingency Model It applies the same standard to leadership as to management. The effective leader must be able to analyze the situation and develop a satisfactory strategy for intervention. Leadership style according to Fielder’s theory can be either relationship- oriented or task-oriented. Relationship oriented relationship as an important means of accomplishing work work-related goals. Task-oriented supervisors focus on completing a job first and taking care of people as secondary to accomplishing their primary mission. (B) Continuum of Leadership According to this theory, managers could move along this continuous line, adjusting their leadership style to fit to situation. The continuum of leadership recognizes seven degrees of freedom. Boss-centered leadership falls in the 1 to 3 range: 1. Total use of authority by the supervisor: supervisors make all decisions and merely announces to the workers 2. The manager makes all decisions but attempts to sell and persuade the staff of the validity of his or her viewpoint 3. The boss makes all decisions but invites input, suggestions and questions from the staff Equilibrium – shared boss-subordinate leadership is at the midpoint scale 4. Manager makes the decisions but seeks support and approval from the subordinate. Subordinate-centered leadership falls in the range 5 to 7 range: 5. Supervisor gathers the data and defines the problems, then seeks suggestions and recommendations for the solutions before making decisions. 6. Manager provides information, supervision and guidance but requests that the staff makes the decisions. 7. A manager focuses on setting general policies and procedures for the department but allows total freedom and responsibility to the employees to function and make decisions with these broadly defined boundaries. (C) Normative theory It is also referred to as Vroom-Yetton decision model which classifies each decision making method as autocratic, consultative or group-oriented. Five possible behavior styles identified by Vroom and Yetton are as follows: I. Manager makes decisions based on the current information available. II. Manager seeks necessary information from the subordinates before making a decision III. Manager shares the problem with selected individuals before making decisions IV. Manager shares the problem with all the members of the group but makes the final decisions V. Manager shares the problem with the group and a decision is reached by consensus  LMGT211- MANAGEMENT OF WORK GROUPS UNIT OUTCOMES/SESSION OBJECTIVES: The students are introduced to the concept of management of work groups. After the review and completion of the topic, the student will describe how individuals relate and affected by their interaction with their work groups. GROUP A group is a collection of individual persons consisting of a leader, followers with a purpose or a mission, be it profit or social; shared opinions on how things should be done; performance and commitment expectations and sanctions for those who do not meet expectations. WORK GROUP A work group shares the characteristics of all groups. It is a collection of individual persons working together to perform specific functions for the benefit of the organization. Its management justification lies in the principle of specialization of work, in which total output of the organizations is greatly enhanced by allowing individual persons or group to become highly proficient in a special part of the production process. INDIVIDUAL GROUP INTERFACE Groups and individuals maintain a push-pull relationship. Each puts pressure on the other to change and adapt. The character and performance of each is molded by the dynamic interaction. Individuals are the substance of a group and provide a source of its energy. (a) Interpersonal relationships People have definite goals and expectations for their interactions with other individuals. How they respond to fellow members of the group is guided by several factors, including how they view themselves (personal image), how they believe others will behave (behavior expectations) and what they expect to receive from the relationship (personal benefits). (b) Personal image Personal image or self-concept include our personal goals, belief systems, assumptions about ourselves and others, social and moral values, confidence in our ability to perform in the workplace and amount of control we exercise over our affairs. (c) Behavior expectation Behavior expectations are derived from the experiences and feedback we have received from our daily encounters. (d) Personal benefits The final factor in the interpersonal relationship is the attractiveness of membership in a group. The needs of the group must be weighed against the needs of each member. The benefits and rewards of membership may be monetary (pay, financial  benefits), social (fellowship, acceptance) or personal (friendship, good feelings, accomplishment). WORK GROUP BEHAVIORS Synergism, effectiveness and teamwork are the secret of a good inner functioning of a work group. Synergism in which the whole becomes greater than the sum of its individual parts results from the bonding of the members into a viable and effective unit with a common mission and goals. Work Group Functional Factors Shared values of the members and their commitment to the goals and the objectives of the work group The success of the group in achieving its mission The status of the grouping achieving its mission The status of the group within the organization as viewed by the members and peers The amount and quality of participation in the decision making process Work Group Dysfunctional Factors Lack of self-esteem and group esteem or low status of the group within the organization Failure in reaching the goals Poor physical working conditions Dictatorial management styles that discourage creativity and participation Members with divergent and conflicting social and personal norms Personal inequalities in social and organizational skills Friendship and informal group clashes Disagreement with how things are done Difficulty in relationships with other groups and organizational competition for limited resources GROUP INTERACTION Group interaction depends on the relationship between members of each group, because a group consists of its members and on the nature of the group itself. Factors that may influence inter-group relationships include: The status or prestige of one group in the organization relationship The amount of dependency or power of one group in relation to one another Any conflict of interest issues The ability to communicate and deliver goods and services to each other The personal relationships between the interfacing members of the group UNIONS Union allegedly represents employees to management. It is also stated purpose of management, particularly first line supervisors, to be the link between employees and the owners of the enterprise. Reasons that workers find union membership attractive: To provide security including employment, maintenance of pay levels and safe working conditions To ensure fairness in personal practice To be involved in the decision making process To accede to peer pressure from coworkers Arguments in favor of unions: Provide mechanism to offset or balance managerial power Allow employees to gain some control over their future and everyday work life Ensure fair and equal treatment of all employees in the application of company policies and procedures Provide security in employment and improvement in wages and benefits Provide social opportunities for members Arguments against unions: Cause of loss of managerial control over timely implementation and adaptation of the company strategy in the changing market environment Lose competitive advantage to other geographic areas or foreign countries that have significantly lower wage scales Interfere with and cause trouble in the labor relationship between the company and its employees Create philosophical conflict over collectivism and individualism Dislike poor image and reputation of the union movement TEAMWORK Teamwork sometimes referred to as esprit de corps or team spirit. Team work gives the group a feeling of shared enthusiasm for their common mission. A manager can intervene in those areas to build a strong work group: leadership styles of the supervisor bureaucratic structures of the work group and organization level of success achieved by the manager in building a team A good manager gives proper respect to both. People and tasking are essential and complementary to each other, not in conflict. The bureaucratic structure set in place to organize these factors and plays a major role in the functioning of work groups. Changes in structural format, particularly in management styles, the delegation and use of  authority and role expectations of the members can bring about changes in how work groups perform and coalesce. The main features of team building are: Making sure that each member understands his or her duties and role in accomplishing the goals of the group Reducing and eliminating any conflict between members over issues of personal worth, jealousy or status within the group Enhancing interpersonal relations through recognition of he contribution of each member and encouraging the sense of belonging so important in satisfying the social needs of the individual Boosting the identity of the group as a unified body by heightening the attractiveness of organizations through programs that advance the problem solving skills of the group as a whole, promote participation in decision making and support personal growth. GROUP MANAGEMENT Inter-group management tactics include standardization of procedures and planning for coordinating the performance of each unit as a part of the management functions design. Techniques proven helpful in coordinating inter-group activities: Integrate services that are highly dependent and must be closely coordinated Obtain mutual input and approval from a family of groups that require close coordination Designate someone to coordinate common concerns between several groups Develop interdisciplinary terms responsible for resolving continuing problems and issues within the department and organization