Ch- 1.pdf

# Chapter 11: The Revolt of 1857 ## Learning Outcomes - Beginning of the Revolt of 1857 - Causes of the Revolt of 1857 - Main centres and leaders of the Revolt - Consequences of the Revolt - Nature of the Revolt of 1857 ## The Revolt of 1857 In the century after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, th...

# Chapter 11: The Revolt of 1857 ## Learning Outcomes - Beginning of the Revolt of 1857 - Causes of the Revolt of 1857 - Main centres and leaders of the Revolt - Consequences of the Revolt - Nature of the Revolt of 1857 ## The Revolt of 1857 In the century after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British established themselves as the supreme power in India, eliminating all potential rivals. They conquered many areas and expanded their dominion over large parts of India. However, the British expansion was accompanied by unjust, exploitative and oppressive policies that served to further British interests. These policies caused poverty and untold miseries to the Indian people and had an adverse effect on all segments of the Indian society. There were sporadic rebellions and protests against the British policies. However, they could not shake the foundation of British rule in India. The Revolt of 1857 was a large-scale revolt against the British that started within the ranks of the army and soon spread to other areas. British historians refer to it as the Sepoy Mutiny. Some Indian historians call it the First War of Independence. ## Causes of the Revolt of 1857 ### Political Causes - The forceful expansionist policy of the Company created widespread resentment among Indian rulers. - Lord Dalhousie’s **Doctrine of Lapse** was a major cause of resentment among Indian rulers. According to the Doctrine of Lapse, kingdoms where the rulers died without a natural male heir would pass into the hands of the British. Dalhousie annexed the states of Jhansi, Nagpur and Satara under this doctrine. - Dalhousie refused to acknowledge the rights of Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Since he was not recognised as the legal heir, Nana Sahib was deprived of the pension his father had been getting. Nana Sahib became an important leader of the Revolt. - Dalhousie also interfered in the internal affairs of the states that had signed the Subsidiary Alliance. He annexed these states on various pretexts like misgovernance and incompetence. Awadh was brought under British control on the grounds of maladministration. This angered the people of Awadh, since Awadh had been a British ally. - The British also ill-treated the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. He was made a British pensioner. The British announced that the successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be allowed to use their imperial titles. They would not be allowed to reside in the Red Fort and had to move to the outskirts of Delhi, near Qutub Minar. Such acts humiliated the Mughal Emperor. - The British showed no respect for the Indian kings and the treaties signed with them. They had no hesitation in breaking treaties and occupying lands. This created a feeling of fear and insecurity among the Indian rulers. - The British had suffered heavy losses in the First Afghan War and the Crimean War. They also faced losses while quelling the rebellion of the Santhal tribes of Bihar and Orissa (Odisha). These losses showed the vulnerability of the British and exposed the myth of British invincibility. ### Economic Causes - The economic exploitation by the British and the complete destruction of traditional economic structure, left both the peasants and the artisans impoverished: - India became a major colony of the British, providing cheap raw materials, like cotton and silk, to the rising British industries in the nineteenth century. In addition to this, heavy duties were imposed on Indian handicraft products entering England to protect the English manufacturers and industries. - Unrestricted entry of cheap machine-made products from England into the Indian market ruined the traditional handicraft industry, as they could not compete with the cheap products from England. The Company made no effort to promote the traditional industry and trade in India. Artisans and craftsmen were devastated with this transformation of the traditional economic structure. - The land revenue systems of the British aimed at extracting maximum revenue from the peasants. The high rates of revenue fixed by the Company led to great hardships among the peasants. They were oppressed by the zamindars and the moneylenders. Some even lost their lands to the moneylenders. No part of the revenue collected from the overburdened peasants was used for development of agriculture. - The landlords were insecure about their position. Thousands of jagirs or estates were confiscated during the reign of Lord Bentinck and Lord Dalhousie, when the landlords failed to produce written deeds of ownership. - After the annexation of Awadh, the British confiscated the land holdings of zamindars and talukdars. Therefore, they also rose in revolt against the British. - There were problems related to the law of the land and corrupt administration. The masses had to deal with the corrupt police, lower level officials, and lower law courts. - The upper and middle classes were excluded from the high paid jobs in administration. - Also, the disappearance of Indian states, which were annexed by the Company, led to large-scale unemployment among those employed in the courts and administration of the states. The end of royal patronage caused impoverishment of artists, craftsmen and religious preachers who were dependent on the Indian rulers. ### Social and Religious Causes - The establishment of British rule was accompanied by the spread of Western education and culture. - The British also began to interfere in the social and religious lives of the Indians. This caused apprehension and discontent among people, who viewed the foreign culture as a threat to Indian society and culture: - The British introduced several social reforms, like abolition of sati and female infanticide. They also legalised widow remarriage and advocated the education of women. These reforms were seen as foreign intervention in the religious and cultural affairs of Indians. - After the establishment of British rule, religious missionaries came to India in large numbers. Their activities hurt the sentiments of people and created a sense of suspicion and fear among Indians. ### Military Causes - The Revolt of 1857 started as a ‘sepoy’ mutiny, i.e., the rebellion by the Indian soldiers of the Company. Certain measures undertaken by the British government created resentment among the soldiers against the Company: - Indian soldiers had played a major role in the expansion of the British Empire. However, they were neither appreciated nor rewarded by the British for their efforts. - Indian soldiers could never rise in the ranks of the army. All high military posts were reserved for the British. The highest position that an Indian soldier could hold was that of a subedar. - An act passed in 1856 required every new recruit to undertake overseas service if required. This hurt the religious sentiments of the Indian sepoys, as overseas travel at that time had socio-religious constraints associated with it. - The British officers treated Indian sepoys with contempt. They were considered as inferior beings and often humiliated by the British officers. The Indian sepoys were paid much less than their British counterparts. Even the lodging, food and other services provided to them were far worse than those given to the British soldiers. - Another cause for discontent was the non-payment of foreign service allowance or bhatta, when serving in the region of Sindh or Punjab. This led to a reduction in the salaries of the soldiers. - The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie in 1856, which was home to many sepoys, further ignited their hatred and discontent towards the British rule. - Since the establishment of the British rule, there were numerous sepoy rebellions against it. Some such revolts took place in Bengal (1764), Vellore (1806) and Barrackpore (1824). All of them were, however, ruthlessly crushed. ### Immediate Cause - In 1857, the British introduced **Enfield Rifles** in the army. These rifles had cartridges which were rumoured to be greased with animal fat. The cover of these cartridges had to be bitten off before being loaded. It was believed that animal fat was used on purpose, as it would hurt the religious sentiments of the Indians. This was offensive to both Hindu and Muslim sepoys, and they refused to touch these cartridges. The British refused to understand their protests and instead punished those who defied their orders. ## Main Centres and Leaders of the Revolt of 1857 ### Meerut - The Revolt started in Meerut when soldiers refused to use the cartridges and rose in revolt. They stormed the jail, released many prisoners, and killed several British officials. Then they marched to Delhi. ### Delhi - When the revolting soldiers from Meerut reached Delhi, they were joined by the local infantry, who killed their British counterparts and seized the historic city. The rebels proclaimed the powerless Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of their revolt, declaring him the Emperor of India. This made Delhi the centre of the Revolt and Bahadur Shah Zafar, its symbol. News of the restoration of the Mughal rule and the end of the British rule spread far and wide. Thus, the sepoy mutiny transformed into a revolutionary war against the British rule. ### Kanpur - Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the Last Peshwa Baji Rao II, led the Revolt in Kanpur. With the help of the sepovs, he expelled the British officers from Kanpur and emerged as their leader, proclaiming himself the Peshwa. He recognised Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of Hindustan and declared himself as his Governor. ### Lucknow - The Revolt in Lucknow was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh, who proclaimed her young son, Birjis Kadr, the Nawab of Awadh. With the help of the rebels, consisting of the disbanded soldiers of the old Awadh army and the local people, she attacked the British forces at Lucknow. The British Commissioner of Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, fortified his position inside the Residency compound but was killed in the siege. The British were besieged inside the Residency for a long time. However, new reinforcements from England soon rescued them and supressed the rebellion. Many rebels were executed. Begum Hazrat Mahal escaped to Nepal. ### Jhansi - Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi joined the Revolt when the British refused to acknowledge her adopted son as the heir to the throne of Jhansi, and annexed it under the Doctrine of Lapse. The Rani of Jhansi fought valiantly but was killed in the battlefield. Gwalior was taken back by the British in the next three days. Rani Lakshmibai became a symbol of bravery, courage and brilliant military tactics. She became a source of inspiration for the coming generations, symbolising the spirit of freedom. ### Bihar - The Revolt in Bihar was led by Kunwar Singh, a discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur, near Arrah in Bihar. He was an outstanding military leader and strategist of the Revolt. He fought the British in Bihar and later joined Nana Sahib's forces. He also participated in the Revolt at Awadh and Central India. He was defeated by the British and in 1858, he died in his village of Jagdishpur. ## Consequences of the Revolt of 1857 - By the end of 1859, British authority was completely re-established throughout the Indian subcontinent, and the Revolt was crushed. - The Revolt of 1857 was seen as the first great struggle for freedom against British imperialism. It is considered a glorious landmark in Indian. history: - The rule of the English East India Company came to an end after the Revolt of 1857. - The British Parliament Act, passed in August 1858, brought India under the direct rule of the British Parliament and the Queen of England. Queen Victoria was declared the Empress of India in 1876. ## Nature of the Revolt of 1857 - There has been a great debate around the nature of the Revolt of 1857. Some scholars opine that it was a spontaneous act of defiance. Others believe that it was planned action of a secret organisation. The study of the history of 1857 uprising is entirely based on the official British records. There are not many records left by the rebels. Also, with their defeat and suppression of the Revolt, the rebels and their version of history also got suppressed. - The Revolt of 1857 could not be considered just a ‘Sepoy Mutiny’, as it was a culmination of the years of discontent and hatred against the British: - Different Indian kingdoms and sections of society had their own motives and reasons for their dissatisfaction. They were all united against the British. They had one goal and that was to drive away the British from the country. - The Revolt of 1857 fostered Hindu-Muslim unity. It brought together people from different segments of the Indian society. - The popular character of the Revolt could be witnessed with the widespread participation of the peasants and the artisans. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the peasants and zamindars took this opportunity to attack the money lenders and new zamindars, who had displaced them from their lands. They destroyed the account books of the money lenders and records of debts. - Most of the casualties of the Revolt were civilians or common people. Out of about 1,50,000 people killed, 1,00,000 were civilians. - Thus, the Revolt of 1857 was much more than a sepoy mutiny. It was the first great struggle for freedom against British imperialism.