478423405-Hist-1-Readings-in-Philippine-History-Module-pdf.pdf

Chapter/ Module 1: Learning History LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To understand the meaning of history as an academic discipline and to be familiar with the underlying philosophy and methodology of the discipline.  To examine and assess critically the value of historical evidences and sources.  To appreciate the importance of history in the social and national life of the Philippines. Lesson 1: Meanings and Relevance of History To make sense of history, it is necessary to first understand what it is all about. Many people think that history is merely lists of names, dates, places, and “important” events. However, History or the study of history is more than just knowing and memorizing facts. It is a historian’s duty to draw insights from the ideas and realities that have shaped the lives of men and women and the society. And in understanding these ideas, a historian (or, in fact, a student of history) can comprehend how situations happened, identify their elements, and think of how these situations can solve today’s predicaments, and help them plan for the future. The study of history, therefore, is the study of the beliefs and desires, practices, and institutions of human beings. WHY STUDY HISTORY? An examination of the past can tell us a great deal about how we came to be who we are. It means looking at the roots of modern institutions, ideas, values, and problems. Looking at the past teaches us to see the world through different eyes- appreciating the diversity of human perceptions, beliefs, and cultures. Different and/or new perspectives will enable us to analyze critically the present contexts of our society and beings. THE DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER History was derived from the Greek word historia which means “knowledge acquired through inquiry or investigation”. History as a disciplined existed for around 2, 400 years and is as old as mathematics and philosophy. This term was then adapted to classical Latin where it acquired a new definition. Historia became known as the account of the past of a person or a group of people through written documents and historical evidences. That meaning stuck until the early parts of the twentieth century. History became an important discipline. It became the historian’s duty to Page 1 of 92 write about the lives of important individuals like monarchs, heroes, saints, and nobilities. History was also focused on writing wars, revolutions, and other important breakthroughs. It is thus important to ask: What counts as history? Traditional historians lived with the mantra “no document, no history”. It means that unless a written document can prove a certain historical event, then it cannot be considered as a historical fact. But as any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened up to the possibility of valid historical sources, which were not limited to written documents, like government records, chroniclers’ accounts, or personal letters. Giving premium to written documents essentially invalidates the history of other civilizations that do not keep written records. Some were keener on passing their history by word of mouth. Others got their historical documents burned or destroyed in the events of war or colonization. Restricting historical evidence as exclusively written is also discrimination against other social classes who were not recorded in paper. Nobilities, monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class would have their birth, education, marriage, and death as matters of government and historical record. But what of peasant families or indigenous groups who were not given much thought about being registered to government records? Does the absence of written documents about them mean they were people of no history or past? Did they even exist? This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other kinds of historical sources, which may not be in written form but were just as valid. A few examples are oral traditions in forms of epics and songs, artifacts, architecture, and memory. History thus became more inclusive and started collaborating with other disciplines as its auxiliary disciplines. Other Definitions of History:  History is defined as a documented record of man and his society. (Gray, 1956, pp.1-3).  As a field of study, history is a study of man and his achievements from the beginning of written records to the present.  As a literary form of history is an effective presentation of the unfolding events. But as a type of literature history falls under non- fiction work.  History comes from social history which defines it as a record of events showing the evolution of man and his society from the earliest and from the age of barbarism to what he is today. Understanding History Why don’t we learn from history? (An excerpt from Lidell Hart, 1971) What is the objective of history? One would simply answer, quite simply - “truth”. It is a word and an idea that has gone out of fashion. The object might be more cautiously expressed thus: to find out what happened while trying to find out why it happened. It seeks the casual relations between events. Page 2 of 92 History has limitations as a guiding signpost; although it can show us the right direction, it does not give detailed information about the road conditions. But its negative value as a warning sign is more definite. History can show us what to avoid, even if it does not teach us what to do - by showing the most common mistakes that mankind is apt to make and to repeat. A second object lies in the practical value of history. The knowledge gained from the study of true history is the best of all education for practical life. The study of history embraces every aspect of life. It lays the foundation of education by showing how mankind repeats its errors and what those errors are. Importance and Uses of History Given are the uses of history as summarized by Foray and Salevouris (1988). Some of these are interestingly explained by B.H. Lidedell Hart (1971). A. History provides a source of personal and social identity. B. History helps us understand the problems of the present. C. History – good history – corrects misleading analogies and “lessons” of the past. D. History can help one develop tolerance and open-mindedness. E. History helps us better understand all human behaviors and all aspects of the human condition. F. History provides the basic background for many disciplines. G. History can be a source of entertainment. H. History, when studied, can teach many critical skills. SELF ASSESSMENT 1 Below is a definition of history by Zeus A. Salazar (1999). Examine it carefully then answer the questions following the definition. “Ang KASAYSAYAN ay SALAYSAY hinggil sa nakaraan o nakalipas na may SAYSAY – kahulugan, katuturan, at kabuluhan – sa SARILING LIPUNAN at KULTURA o kabuuang kinabibilangan. Ito ay iniuulat gamit ang mga konsepto at kategorya ng sariling kultura.” A. What does the author mean or imply by “Ang kasaysayan ay salaysay… na may saysay sa sariling lipunan at kultura”? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ __________________ B. The statement. “Ito (referring to kasaysayan) ay iniuulat gamit ang mga konsepto at kategorya ng sariling kultura, implies who should write a people’s history. What issues would emerge from (1) a history of people written and interpreted by an “outsider” (a foreign Page 3 of 92 historian); and, (2) a history of people analyzed and presented by an “insider” (a local historian)? B.1 History written by an outsider ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________ B.2 History written by an insider ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________ SELF ASSESSMENT 2 As a student of history, reading a historical account is not simply like reading novel or a comic book. A learner should also know how to distinguish which of those sentences or paragraphs that make up the narrative are facts or opinions. Although a historian attempts to present a history free from biases, it cannot be avoided the personal opinions or interpretations of people, places, or events are integrated in a particular historical account. Below are excerpts from books and newspapers. Label each passage either as FACT (F) or OPINION (O). If a passage combines fact and opinion, write (FO) and underline that part of the passage that you think is an opinion or judgement. ________ 1. “His” [Apolinario Mabini] writings, his behavior throughout his life, short as it was, demonstrated extraordinary moral integrity, intense and uncompromising patriotism.” – Roxas-Lim (200) ________2. “Swimmer Miguel Molina finished fourth in the 400 – meter individual medley…, while the men’s trap shooters missed the bronze by seven birds…” – Tempo Sports News, Bancod, December 4, 2006 ________3. “President Marcos, an unscrupulous politician, craftily planned KBL strategy before, during, and after the elections, if need be to steal the results in his favor. No effort was spared in the use of “guns, goons, and gold” to intimidate or entice voters to support the Marcos-Tolentino ticket.’ – Zaide (1999) ________ 4. “anyone who has visited Jolo can immediately see that beyond the town looms a dominating peak, Mt. Tumatangis, a place held sacred by the Tausugs as the burial grounds of its sultans. The busy pier is called the “Chinese Pier”,” obviously used in the early times by Chinese trading vessels.” – Patanne (1996) Page 4 of 92 _______ 5. “Yay Panlilio [was] a pre-war newspaperwoman. As early as April 1942, she began serving as G-2 agent in Manila for the USAFFE headquarters. [A military citation to her credit reads]: “Through her untiring efforts and selflessness…in supplying…information concerning Japanese… activities… many American lives were saved.” – Baclagon (1968) Lesson 2: Historical Sources With the past as history's subject matter, the historian's most important research tools are historical sources. In general, historical sources can be classified between primary and secondary sources. The classification of sources between these two categories depends on the historical subject being studied. Primary sources are those sources produced at the same time as the event, period, or subject being studied. For example, if a historian wishes to study the Commonwealth Constitution Convention of 1935, his primary sources can include the minutes of the convention, newspaper clippings Philippine Commission reports of the U.S. Commissioners, records of the convention, the draft of the Constitution, and even photographs of the event. Eyewitness accounts of convention delegates and their memoirs can also be used as primary sources. The same goes with other subjects of historical study. Archival documents, artifacts, memorabilia, letters, census, and government records, among others are the most common examples of primary sources. On the other hand, secondary sources are those sources, which were produced by an author who used primary sources to produce the material. In other words, secondary sources are historical sources, which studied a certain historical subject. For example, on the subject of the Philippine Revolution of 1896, students can read Teodoro Agoncillo's Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan published originally in 1956. The Philippine Revolution happened in the last years of the nineteenth century while Agoncillo published his work in 1956, which makes the Revolt of the Masses a secondary source. More than this, in writing the book, Agoncillo used primary sources with his research like documents of the Katipunan, interview with the veterans of the Revolution, and correspondence between and among Katipuneros. However, a student should not be confused about what counts as a primary or a secondary source. As mentioned above, the classification of sources between primary and secondary depends not on the period when the source was produced or the type of the source but on the subject of the historical research. For example, a textbook is usually classified as a secondary source, a tertiary source even. However, this classification is usual but not automatic. If a historian chooses to write the history of education in the 1980s, he can utilize textbooks used in that period as a primary source. If a historian wishes to study the historiography of the Filipino-American War for example, he can use works of different authors on the topic as his primary source as well. Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning history. However, historians and students of history need to thoroughly Page 5 of 92 scrutinize these historical sources to avoid deception and to come up with the historical truth. The historian should be able to conduct an external and internal criticism of the source, especially primary sources which can age in centuries. External criticism is the practice of verifying the authenticity of evidence by examining its physical characteristics; consistency with the historical characteristic of the time when it was produced; and the materials used for the evidence. Examples of the things that will be examined when conducting external criticism of a document include the quality of the paper, the type of the ink, and the language and words used in the material, among others. Internal criticism, on the other hand, is the examination of the truthfulness of the evidence. It looks at the content of the source and examines the circumstance of its production. Internal criticism looks at the truthfulness and factuality of the evidence by looking at the author of the source, its context, the agenda behind its creation, the knowledge which informed it, and its intended purpose, among others. For example, Japanese reports and declarations during the period of the war should not be taken as a historical fact hastily. Internal criticism entails that the historian acknowledge and analyze how such reports can be manipulated to be used war propaganda. Validating historical sources is important because the use of unverified, falsified, and untruthful historical sources can lead to equally false conclusions. Without thorough criticisms of historical evidences; historical deceptions and lies will be highly probable. One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Phiippine history is the hoax Code of Kalantiaw. The code was a set of rules contained in an epic, Maragtas, which was allegedly written by a certain Datu Kalantiaw. The document was sold to the National Library and was regarded as an important precolonial document until 1968, when American historian William Henry Scott debunked the authenticity of the code due to anachronism and lack of evidence to prove that the code existed in the precolonial Philippine society Ferdinand Marcos also claimed that he was a decorated World War II soldier who led a guerilla unit called Ang Maharlika. This was widely believed by students of history and Marcos had war medals to show. This claim, however, was disproven when historians counterchecked Marcos's claims with the war records of the United States. These cases prove how deceptions can propagate without rigorous historical research. The task of the historian is to look at the available historical sources and select the most relevant and meaningful for history and for the subject matter that he is studying. History, like other academic discipline, has come a long way but still has a lot of remaining tasks to do. It does not claim to render absolute and exact judgment because as long as questions are continuously asked, and as long as time unfolds, the study of history can never be complete. The task of the historian is to organize the past that is being created so that it can offer lessons for nations, societies, and civilization. It is the historian's job to seek for the meaning of recovering the past to let the people see the continuing relevance of provenance, memory, Page 6 of 92 remembering, and historical understanding for both the present and the future. Philippine historiography underwent several changes since the precolonial period until the present. Ancient Filipinos narrated their history through communal songs and epics that they passed orally from a generation to another. When the Spaniards came, their chroniclers started recording their observations through written accounts. The perspective of historical writing and inquiry also shifted. The Spanish colonizers narrated the. history of their colony in a bipartite view They saw the age before colonization as a dark period in the history of the islands, until they brought light through Western thought and Christianity. Early nationalists refuted this perspective and argued the tripartite view. They saw the precolonial society as a luminous age that ended with darkness when the colonizers captured their freedom. They believed that the light would come agan once the colonizers were evicted from the Philippines. Filipino historian Zeus Salazar introduced the new guiding philosophy for writing and teaching history: pantayong pananaw (for us-trom us perspective). This perspective highlights the importance of facilitating an internal conversation and discourse among Filipinos about our own history, using the language that is understood by everyone. SELF ASSESSMENT 3. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, write false in the space provided. _______1. History is the study of the past. _______2. Historical sources that were not written should not be used in writing history. _______3. The subject of historiography is history itself. _______4. History has no use for the present, thus, the saying “past is past” is true. _______5. History is limited to the story of a hero versus a vilain. _______6. Only primary sources may be used in writing history. _______7. There are three types of sources: primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. _______8. External criticisms is done by examining the physical characteristics of a source. _______9. Internal criticisms is done by looking at a source’s quality of paper and type of ink, among others. _______10. The historians are the only source of history. Page 7 of 92 TO DO! Assignment 1: Make two Venn diagrams about external and internal criticism and primary and secondary resources. See your course guide for deadline, instructions, and rubric for scoring. Below is the format of a venn diagram. Primary Secondary sources Sources External Internal Criticism Criticism REFERENCES Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine History. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, inc. Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S. (2006) Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC. Page 8 of 92 CHAPTER/ MODULE 2: CONTENT AND CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCES IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY LEARNING OBJECTIVES  To familiarize oneself with the primary documents in different historical periods of the Philippines.  To learn history through primary sources.  To properly interpret primary sources through examining the content and context of the document  To understand the context behind each selected document.  To interpret historical events using primary sources.  To recognize the multiplicity of interpretation than can be read from a historical text.  To identify the advantages and disadvantages of employing critical tools in interpreting historical events through primary sources.  To demonstrate ability to argue for or against a particular issue using primary sources. In the preceding chapter, we have discussed the importance of familiarizing oneself about the different kinds of historical sources. The historian's primary tool of understanding and interpreting the past is the historical sources. Historical sources ascertain historical facts. Such facts are then analyzed and interpreted by the historian to weave historical narrative. Specifically, historians who study certain historical subjects and events need to make use of various prumary sources in order to weave the narrative. Primary sources, as discussed in the preceding chapter, consist or documents, memoir, accounts, and other materials that were produced at the period of the event or subject being studied. Using primary sources in historical research entails two kinds of criticism. The first one is the external criticism, and the second one is the internal criticism. External criticism examines the authenticity of the document or the evidence being used. This is important in ensuring that the primary source is not fabricated. On the other hand, internal criticism examines the truthfulness of the content of the evidence. However, this criticism requires not just the act establishing Page 9 of 92 truthfulness and/or accuracy but also the examination of the primary sources in terms of the context of its production. For example, a historian would have to situate the document in the period of its production, or in the background of its authors. In other words, it should be recognized that facts are neither existing in a vacuum nor produced from a blank slate. These are products of the time and of the people. In this chapter, we are going to look at a number of primary sources from different historical periods and evaluate these documents content in terms of historical value, and examine the context of their production. The primary sources that we are going to examine is Emilio Jacinto's "Kartilya ng Katipunan and afterwards you will be examining selected primary sources; these are: Manunggul Jar, Dasalan at Tocsohan, and Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Pilipino. Needless to say, different types of sources necessitate different kinds of analysis and contain different levels of importance. You are going to explore that in this chapter. Lesson 1 The KKK and the Kartilya ng Katipunan The Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KAK) or Katipunan is arguably the most important organization formed n the Philippine history. While anti-colonial movements, efforts, and organizations had already been established centuries prior to the foundation of the katipunan, it was only this organization that envisioned 1)a united Filipino nation that would revolt against the Spaniards for (2)the total independence of the country from Spain. Previous armed revolts had alreaay occurred before the foundation of the Katipunan, but none of them envisioned a unified Filipino nation revolting against the colonizers. For example, Diego Silang was known as an llocano who took up his arms and led one of the longest running revolts in the country. Silang. however, was mainly concerned about his locality and referred to himself as El Rey de Ilocos (The King of locos). The imagination of the nation was largely absent in the aspirations of the local revolts before Katipunan. On the other hand, the propaganda movements led by the ilustrados like Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, and Jose Rizal did not envision a total separation of the Philippines from Spain, but only demanded equal rights, representation and protection from the abuses of the friars. Page 10 of 92 In the conduct of their struggle, Katipunan created a complex structure and a defined value system that would guide the organization as a collective aspiring for a single goal. One of the most important Katipunan documents was the Kartilya ng Katipunan. The original title of the document was "Manga [sic] Aral Nang [sic] Katipunan ng mga A.N.B." or "Lessons of the Organization of the Sons of Country" The document was written by Emilio Jacinto in the 1896. Jacinto was only 18 years old when he joined the movement. He was a law student at the Universidad de Santo Tomas. Despite his youth, Bonifacio recognized the value and intellect of Jacinto that upon seeing that Jacinto's Kartilya was much better than the Decalogue he wrote, he willingly favored that the Kartilya be distributed to their fellow Katipuneros. Jacinto became the secretary of the organization and took charge of the short-lived printing press of the Katipunan On 15 April 189 Bonifacio appointed Jacinto as a commander of the Katipunan in Northern Luzon. Jacinto was 22 years old. He died of Malaria at a young age ot 24 in the town ot Magdalena, Laguna. The Kartilya can be treated as the Katipunan's code of conduct. It contains fourteen rules that instruct the way a Katipunero should behave, and which specific values should he uphold. Generally, the rules stated in the Kartilya can be classified into two. The first group contains the rules that will make the member an upright individual and the second group contains the rules that will gulde the way he treats his tellow men. Below is the translated version of the rules in Kartilya: I. The life that is not consecrated to a lofty and reasonable purpose is a tree without a shade, if not a poisonous weed. II. To do good for personal gain and not for its own sake is not a virtue. III. It is rational to be charitable and love one's fellow creature, and to adjust one's conduct, acts and words to what is in itself reasonable. IV. Whether our skin be black or white, we are all born equal: Superiority in knowledge, wealth and beauty are to be understood, but not superiority by nature. V. The honorable man preters honor to personal gain; the scoundrel, gain to honor. VI. To the honorable man, his word is sacred. VII. Do not waste thy time: wealth can be recovered but not time lost. Page 11 of 92 VIll. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor before the law or in the field. IX. The prudent man is sparing in words and faithful in keeping secrets. X. On the thorny path of life, man is the guide of woman and the children, and if the guide leads to the precipice, those whom he guides will also go there. XI.Thou must not look upon woman as a mere plaything, but as faithful companion who will share with thee the penalties of life; her (physical) weakness will increase thy interest in her and she will remind thee of the mother who bore thee and reared thee. XII. What thou dost not desire done unto thy wife, children, brothers and sisters, that do not unto the wife, children, brothers and sisters of thy neighbor. XIII. Man is not worth more because he is a king, because his nose is aquiline, and his color white, not because he is a priest, a servant of God, nor because of the high prerogative that he enjoys upon earth, but he is worth most who is a man of proven and real value, who does good, keeps his words, is worthy and honest; he who does not oppress nor consent to being oppressed, he who loves and cherishes his fatherland though he be born in the wilderness and know no tongue but his own. XIV. When these rules of conduct shall be known to all, the longed- for sun of Liberty shall rise brilliant over this most unhappy portion of the globe and its rays shall diffuse everlasting joy among the confederated brethren of the same rays, the lives of those who have gone before, the fatigues and the well-paid sufferings will remain. If he who desires to enter has informed himself of all this and believes he will be able to perform what will be his duties, he may fill out the application for admission. As the primary governing document, which determines the rules of conduct in the Katipunan, properly understanding the Kartilya will thus help in understanding the values, ideals, aspirations, and even the ideology of the organization. Analysis of the "Kartilya ng Katipunan This primary source also needs to be analyzed in terms of content and context. As a written document for a fraternity whose main purpose is to overthrow a colonial regime, we can explain the content and provisions of the Kartilya as a reaction and response to certain value systems that they found despicable in the present state Page 12 of 92 of things that they struggled against with. For example, in the fourth and the thirteen rules in the Kartilya are an invocation of the inherent equality between and among men regardless of race, occupation or status. In the context of the Spanish colonial era where the indios were treated as the inferior of the white Europeans, the Katipunan saw to it that the alternative order that they wished to promulgate through their revolution necessarily destroyed this kind of unjust hierarchy. Moreover, one can analyze the values upheld in the document as consistent with the burgeoning rational and liberal ideals in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. Equality, tolerance, freedom, and liberty were values that first emerged in the eighteenth century French Revolution, which spread throughout Europe and reached the educated class of the colonies. Jacinto,an ilustrado himself, certainly got an understanding of these values. Aside from the liberal values that can be dissected in the document, we can also decipher certain Victorian and chivalrous values in the text. For example, various provisions in the Kartilya repeatedly emphasized the importance of honor in words and in action. The teaching of the Katipunan on how women should be treated with honor and respect, while positive in many respects and certainly a significant stride from the practice of raping and physically abusing women, can still be telling of the Katipunan's secondary regard for women in relation to men. For example, in the tenth rule, tne document of specifically stated that men should be the guide of women and children, and that he should set a good example, otherwise the women and children would be guided guided in the path of evil. Nevertheless, the same documents stated that women should be treated as companions of men not as playthings that can be exploited for their pleasure. ln the contemporary eyes, the Katipunan can be criticized because of these provisions. However, one must not forget the context where the organization was born. Not even in Europe or in the whole of the West at that juncture recognized the problem of gender inequality. Indeed, it can be argued that Katipunan's recognition of women as important partners in the struggle, as reflected not just in Kartilya but also in the organizational structure of the fraternity where a women's unit was established, is an endeavor advanced for its time. Aside from Rizal's known Letter to the Women of Malolos, no same effort by the supposed cosmopolitan Propaganda Movement was achieved until the movement's eventual disintegration in the latter part of the 1890s. Aside from this, the Kartilya was instructive not just of the Katipunan's conduct toward other people, but also for the members' Page 13 of 92 development as individuals in their own rights. Generally speaking, the rules in the Kartilya can be classified as either directed to how one should treat his neighbor or to how one should develop and conduct one's self, Both are essential to the success and fulfillment of the Katipunan's ideals. For example, the Kartilya's teachings on honoring one's word and not wasting time are teachings directed toward self- development, while the rules on treating the neighbor's wife, children, and brothers the way that you want yours to be treated is an instruction on how Katipuneros should treat and regard their neighbors. All in all, proper reading of the Kartilya will reveal a more thorough understanding of the Katipunan and the significant role that it played in the revolution and in the unfolding of the Philippine history, as we know it. To Do! Now, you will be examining the three primary sources entitled: a.) The Manunggul Jar as a Vessel of History b.) Dasalan at Tocsohan c.) Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Pilipino These primary sources were filed on your flashdrive. Be guided with your course guide! After reading the primary sources, proceed now in answering the prepared self-assessment tasks below. Self-assessment Task 1 Try to complete the information below using the set of words provided in the box. The Mununggul Jar was discovered in the early 1960’s in_______________, Palawan. This burial jar features ____________ designs and is painted with _________ and ________. The lid of the jar features two human figures with arms crossed on the chest representing the traditional practice of the corps riding a boat. This artifact signifies the belief of the early Filipinos in the _____________. The Mununggul Jar is a __________ of the Philippines. The jar was found in the chamber of the _____________, one of the Mununggul caves in Palawan. The jar is found from about ______ years before the present. It was found by _________ and ____________. Page 14 of 92 a. National Treasure b. Afterlife c. Tabon Cave d. 2800 e. curvilinear f. Manunggul cave g. Hematite h. Robert Fox i. Iron j. Miguel Santiago Self-assessment 2 Using the table below compare and contrast the idea of the Marcelo H. del Pilar’s Dasalan at tocsohan to the real Cathechism of the Catholic church. Use keyphrases/words only. Dasalan at Tocsohan Cathechism Conclusion: _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ ______________________________ Self-assessment 3 Page 15 of 92 Using the table below compare and contrast the Philippine setting before and after the arrival of Spaniards in the Philippines. Use keyphrases/words only. Before the arrival of the After the arrival of the Spaniards (LIWANAG) Spaniards (DILIM) Conclusion: _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________ LESSON 2: Making Sense of the Past: Historical Interprefation In this lesson, we will analyze three historiographical problems in Philippine history in an attempt to apply what we have learned thus far in the work of a historian and the process of historical inquiry. Earlier, we have been introduced to history as a discipline, the historical method, and the content and context analysis of primary sources. Two key concepts that need to be defined before proceeding to the historical analysis of problems in history are interpretation and multiperspectivity. History is the study of the past, but a more contemporary definition is centered on how it impacts the present through its consequences. (Geoffrey Barraclough defines history as "the attempt to discover, on the basis of fragmentary evidence, the significant things about the past. He also notes the history we read, though based Page 16 of 92 on facts, is strictiy speaking, not factual at all, but a series of accepted judgments. Such judgments of historians on how the past should be seen make the foundation of historical interpretation. The Code of Kalantiaw is a mythical legal code in the epic history Maragtas. Before it was revealed as a hoax, it was a source of pride for the people of Aklan. In fact, a historical marker was installed in the town of Batan, Aklan in 1956, with the following text: "CODE OF KALANTIAW.Datu Bendehara Kalantiaw, third Chief of Panay, born in Aklan, established his government in the peninsula of Batang, Aklan Sakup. Considered the First Filpino Lawgiver, he promulgated in about 1433 penal code now known as Code of Kalantiaw containing 18 articles. Don Marcelino Orilla of Zarugoza, Spain, obtained the original manuscript from an old chief of Panay which was later translated into Spanish by Rafael Murviedo Yzamaney.” lt was only in 1968 that it was proved a hoax, when William Henry Scott, then a doctoral candidate at the University of Santo Tomas, defended his research on pre-hispanic sources in Philippine history. He attributed the code to a historical fiction writtern in 1913 by Jose E. Marco titled Las Antiguas Leyendas de la lsla de Negros. Marco attributed the code itself to a priest named Jose Maria Pavon. Prominent Filipino historians did not dissent to Scott s findings, but there are still some who would like to believe that the code is a legitimate document. Historians utilize facts collected from primary sources of history and then draw their own reading so that their intended audience may understand the historical event, a process that in essence, "makes sense of the past. The premise is that not all primary sources are accessible to a general audience, and without the proper training and background, a non-historian interpreting a primary source may do more harm than good-a primary source may even cause misunderstandings; sometimes, even resulting more problems. Interpretations of the past, therefore, vary according to who reads the primary source, when it was read, and how it was read. As Page 17 of 92 students of history, we must be well equipped to recognize different types of interpretatons why these may differ from each other, and how to criticaly sift these interpretations through historical evaluation. Interpretations of historical events change over time; thus, it is an important skill for a student of history to track these changes in an attempt to understand the past. Sa “Aking Mga Kabata" is a poem purportedly written by Jose Rizal when he was eight years old and is probably one of Rizal's most prominent works. There is no evidence to support the claim that this poem, with the now immortalized lines "Ang hindi magmahal sa kanyang salita/mahigit sa hayop at malansang isda was written by Rizal, and worse, the evidence against Rizals authorship of the poem seems all unassailable. There exists no manuscript of the poem handwritten by Rizal. The poem was first putblished in 1906, in a book by Hermenegildo Cruz. Cruz said he received the poem from Gabriel Beato Francisco, who claimed to have received it in 1884 tirom Rizal's close friend, Saturnino Raselis. Rizal never mentioned wrting this poem anywhere in his writings, and more importanty, he never mentioned of having a close triend by the person of Raselis. Further criticism of the poem reveals more about the wrongful attribution of the poem to Rizal. The poem was written in Tagalog and reterred to the word "kalayaan. But it was documented in Rizal's letters that he first encountered the word through a Marcelo H. del Pilar's translation of Rizal's essay El Amor Patrio, where it was spelled as kalayahan. While Rizal's native tongue was Tagalog. he was educated in panish, starting from his mother, Teodora Alonso. Later on, he would express disappointment in his difficulty in expressing himself in his native tongue. The poem's spelling is also suspect-the use of letters "k and "w" to replaced c and u, respectively was suggested by Rizal as an adult. If the poem was indeed written during his time, it should use the original Many ofSpanish orthography the things we acceptthat was prevalent as "true about theinpast his might time. not be the case anymore, just because these were taught o us as facts when we were younger does not mean that it is set in stone-history is, after all, a construct. And as a construct, it is open for interpretation. There might be conflicting and competing accounts ot Page 18 of 92 the past that need one's attention, and can impact the way we view our country's history and identity. It is important, therefore, to subject to evaluation not only the primary source, but also the historical interpretation of the same, to ensure that the current interpretation is reliable to support our acceptance of events of the past. Multiperspectivity With several possibilities of interpreting the past, another important concept that we must note is multiperspectivity. This can be defined as a way of looking at historical events, personalities, developments, cultures, and societies from ditferent perspectives. This means that there is a multitude of ways by which we can view the world, and each could be equally valid, and at the same time, equally partial as well. Historical writing is, by definition, biased, partial, and contains preconceptions. The historian decides on what sources to use, what interpretation to make more apparent, depending on what his end is. Historians may misinterpret evidence, attending to those that suggest that a certain event happened, and then ignore the rest that goes against the evidence. Historians may omit significant facts about their subject which makes the interpretation unbalanced. Historians may impose a certain ideology to their subject, which may not be appropriate the period the subject was from. Historians may also provide a single cause for an event without considering other possible causal explanations of said event. These are just many of the ways a historian may fail in his historical inference, description, and interpretation. With multiperspectivity as an approach in history, we must understand that historical interpretations contan diserepancies, contradictions, ambiguities, and are often the focus of dissernt. Exploring multiple perspectives in history requires incorporating source materials that reflect different views of an event in history, because singular historical narratives do not provide for space to inquire and investigate. Different sources that counter each other may create space for more investigation and research, while providing more evidence for those truths that these sources agree on. Different kinds of sources also provide different historical truths -an official document may note different aspects of the past than, say, a memoir an ordinary person on the same event. Different historical agents create different historical truths, and while this may be a burdensome work for the historian, it also renders more validity to the historical scholarship. Taking these in close regard in the reading of historical interpretations it provides for the audience a more complex, but also a more complete and richer understanding of the past. Page 19 of 92 Case Study 1: Where Did the First Catholic Mass Take Place in the Philippines? The popularity of knowing where the "firsts" happened in history has been an easy way to trivialize history, but this case study will not focus on the significance (or lack thereof) of the site of the First Catholie Mass in the Philippines, but rather, use it as a historiographical exercise in the utlization of evidence and interpretation in reading historical events. Butuan has long been believed as the site of the first Mass. In fact,this has been the case for three centuries, culminating in the erection of a monument in 1872 near Agusan River, which commemorates the expedition's arrival and celebration of Mass on 8 April 1521. The Butuan claim has been based on a rather elementary reading of primary sources trom the event. Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the start of the twentieth century, together with the increasing scholarship on the history of the Philippines, a more nuanced reading of the available evidence was made, which brought to light more considerations in gong aganst the more accepted interpretation ot the first Mass in the Philhppines, made both by Spanish and Filipino scholars. It must be noted that there are only two primary sources that historians refer to in identifying the site of the first Mass. One is the log kept by Francisco Albo, a pilot of one of Magellan's ship, Trinidad. He was one of the 18 survivors who returned with Sebastian Elcano on the ship Victoria after they cireumnavigated the world. The other, and the more complete, was the account by Antonio Pigafetta, Primo Uaggio intorno al mondo (First Voyage Around the World). Pigafetta, like Albo, was a member of the Magellanexpedition and an eyewitness of the events, particularly, of the first Mass. Primary Source: Albo's Log Source:Diario o derotero del viage de Magallanes desde el cabo se S. Agustin en el Brazil hasta el regreso a Espana de la nao Victoria, escrito por Frandsco Albo," Document no. xxii in Colleción de viages descubrinmientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles desde fines del siglo XV, Ed. Martin Fernandez de Navarrete (reprinted Buenos Aires 1945, 0 Vols) IV, 191-225. As cited in Miguel A. Bernad "Butuan or Limasawa The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence 1981, Künaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. 111, 1-35. 1. On the 16th of March (1521) as they sailed in a westerly course from Ladrones, they saw land towards the northwest; but owing to Page 20 of 92 many shallow places they did not approach it. T'hey found later that its name was Yunagan. 2. They went instead that same day southwards to another small island named Suluan, and there they anchored. There they saw some canoes but these fled at the Spaniards' approach. This island was at 9 and two-thirds degrees North latitude. 3. Departing from those two islands, they sailed westward to an uninhabited island of Gada" where they took in a supply of wood and water. The sea around that island was free from shallows. (Albo does not give the latitude of this island, but from Pigatetta's testimony, this seems to be the "Acquada or Homonhon, at 10 degrees North latitude.) 4. From that island they sailed westwards towards a large island names Seilani that was inhabited and was known to have gold.(Seilani- or, as Pigafetta calls it, "Ceylon-was the island of Leyte.) 5.Sailing southwards along the coast of that large island of Seilani, they turned southwest to a small island called "Mazava." That island is also at a latitude of 9 and two-thirds degrees North. 6. The people of that island of Mazava were very good. There the Spaniards planted a cross upon a mountain-top, and from there they were shown three islands to the west and southwest, where they were told there was much gold. "They showed us how the gold was gathered, which came in small pieces like peas and lentils. 7. From Mazava they sailed northwards again towards Seilani. Tney followed the coast of Seilani in a northwesterly direction, ascending up to 10 degrees of latitude where they saw three small islands. 8. From there they sailed westwards some ten leagues, and there they saw three islets, where they dropped anchor for the night. In the morning they sailed southwest some 12 leagues, down to a latitude of l0 and one-third degree. There they entered a channel between two islands, one of which was called "Matan" and the other "Subu." 9.They sailed down that channel and then turned westward and anchored at the town (la villa) of Subu where they stayed many days and obtained provisions and entered into a peace-pact with the local king. 10. The town of Subu was on an east-west direction with the islands of Suluan and Mazava. But between Mazava and Subu, there were so many shallows that the boats could not go westward directly but has to go (as they did) in a round-about way. Page 21 of 92 It must be noted that in Albo's account, the location of Mazava fits the location of the island of Limasawa, at the southern tip of Leyte, 9°54N. Also, Albo does not mention the first Mass, but only the planting of the cross upon a mountain-top from which could be seen three islands to the west and southwest, which also fits the southern end of Limasawa. Primary Source: Pigafetta's Testimony on the Route of Magellan's Expedition Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and 34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35. 1. Saturday, 16 March 1521- Magellan's expedition sighted a "high land" named "Zamal" which was some 300 leagues westward of Ladrones (now the Marianas) Islands. 2 Sunday, March 17 "The following day" after sighting Zamal Island, they landed on "another island which was uninhabited" and which lay "to the right" of the above-mentioned island of "Zamal." (To the "righť here would mean on their starboard going south or southwest.) There they set up two tents for the sick members of the crew and had a sow killed for them. The name of this island was Humunu (Homonhon). This island was located at 10 degrees North latitude. 3. On that same day (Sunday, March 17), Magellan named the enure archipelago the "Islands of Saint Lazarus," the reason being that it was Sunday in the Lenten season when the Gospel assigned for the Mass and the liturgical Office was the eleventh chapter of St. John, which tells of the raising of Lazarus trom the dead. 4. Monday, March 18- In the afternoon of their second day on that island, they saw a boat coming towards them with nine men in it. An exchange of gifts was effected. Magellan asked for food supplies, and the men went away, promising to bring rice and other supplies in "four days. 5. There were two springs of water on that island of Homonhon. Also they saw there some indications that there was gold in these islands. Consequently Magellan renamed the island and called it the "Watering Place of Good Omen" (Acquada la di bouni segniali). 6. Friday, March 22-At noon the natives returned. This time they were in two boats, and they brought food suppies. Page 22 of 92 7. Magellan's expedition stayed eight days at Homonhon: from Sunday, March 17, to the Monday of the following week, March 25. 8. Monday, March 25 In the afternoon, the expedition weighed anchor and left the island of Homonhon.In the ecclesiastical calendar, this day (March 25) was the feast-day of the lncarnation, also called the feast of the Annunciation and therefore "Our Lady's Day. On this day, as they were about to weigh anchor, an accident happened to Pigafëtta: he fell into the water but was rescued. He attributed his narrow escape from death as grace obtained through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on her feast-day. 9. The route taken by the expedition after leaving Homonhon was "toward the west southwest, between four islands: namely, Cenalo, Hiunanghan, Ibusson and Albarien." Very probably "Cenalo is a misspelling in the Italian manuscript for what Pigafetta in his map calls "Ceilon and Albo calls "Seilani: namely the island of Leyte. Hiunanghan" (a misspelling of Hinunangan) seemed to Pigafetta to be a separate island, but is actually on the mainland of Leyte G.e., "Ceylon'"). On the other hand, Hibuson (Pigafetta's Ibusson) is an island east of Leyte's southern tip. Thus, it is easy to see what Pigafetta meant by sailing toward the west southwest" past those islands. They left Homonhon sailing westward towards Leyte, then followed the Leyte coast southward, passing between the island of Hibuson on their portside and unangan Bay on their starboard, and then continued southward, then turning westward to "Mazaua. 10. Thursday, March 28 In the morning of Holy Thursday, March 6, they anchored off an island where the previous night they hadseen a light or a bonfire. That island "lies in a latitude of nine and two-thirds towards the Arctic Pole (i.e., North) and in a longitude of one hundred and sixty-two degrees from the line of demarcation. lt is twenty-five leagues from the Acquada, and is called Mazaua. 11. They remained seven days on Mazaua lsland. 12. Thursday, April 4-They left Mazaua, bound for Cebu. They were guided thither by the king of Mazaua who sailed in his own boat. Their route took them past five "islands" namely: "Ceylon, Bohol, Canighan, Baibai, and Gatighan." 13. At Gatighan, they sailed westward to the three islands of the Camotes Group, namely, Poro, Pasihan and Ponson. Here the Spanish ships stopped to allow the king of Mazaua to catch up with them, since Page 23 of 92 the Spanish ships were much faster than the native balangha-a thing that excited the admiration of the king of Mazaua. 14. From the Camotes Islands they sailed southwards towards "Zubu. 15. Sunday, April 7 - At noon they entered the harbor of "Zubu (Cebu). It had taken them three days to negotiate the journey from Mazaua northwards to the Camotes Islands and then southwards to Cebu. It must be pointed out that both Albo and Pigafetta's testimonies coincide and corroborate each other. Pigafetta gave more details on what they did during their weeklong stay at Mazaua. Primary Source: Pigafetta and Seven Days in Mazaua Source: Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands, Vols. 33 and 34, as cited in Miguel A. Bernad, "Butuan or Limasawa? The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Evidence" 1981, Kinaadman: A Journal of Southern Philippines, Vol. III, 1-35. 1. Thursday, March 28-In the morning they anchored near an island where they had seen a light the night before a small boat (boloto) came with eight natives, to whom Magellan threw some trinkets as presents. The natives paddled away, but two hours later two larger boats (balanghai) came, in one of which the native king sat under an awning of mats. At Magellan's invitation some of the natives went up the Spanish ship, but the native king remained seated in his boat. An exchange of gifts was effected. In the afternoon that day, the Spanish ships weighed anchor and came closer to shore, anchoring near the native kings village. This Thursday, March 28, was Thursday in Holy Week, i.e., Holy Thursday. 2. Friday, March 29-"Next day. Holy Friday, Magellan sent his slave interpreter ashore in a small boat to ask the king if he could provide the expedition with food supplies, and to say that they had come as friends and not as enemies. In reply the king himself came in a boat with six or eight men, and this time went up Magellan's ship and the two men embraced. Another exchange of gifts was made. The native king and his companions returned ashore, bringing with them two members of Magellan's expedition as guests for the night. One of the two was Pigafetta. 3. Saturday, March 30 Pigafetta and his companion had spent the previous evening teasting and drinking with the native king and his son. Pigafetta deplored the fact that, although it was Good Friday, they had to eat meat. The following morning (Saturday) Pigafetta and his companion took leave of their hosts and returned to the ships. Page 24 of 92 4. Sunday, March 31-"Early in the morning of Sunday, the last of March and Easter day," Magellan sent the priest ashore with some men to prepare for the Mass. Later in the morning Magellan landed with some fifty men and Mass was celebrated, after which a cross was venerated. Magellan and the Spaniards returned to the ship for the noon-day meal, but in the afternoon they returned ashore to plant the cross on the summit of the highest hill. In attendance both at the Mass and at the planting of the cross were the king of Mazaua and the king of Butuan. 5. Sunday, March 31-On that same afternoon, while on the summit of the highest hill, Magellan asked the two kings which ports he should go to in order to obtain more abundant supplies of food than were available in that island. They replied that there were three to choose from: Ceylon, Zubu, and Calagan. Of the three, Zubu was the port with the most trade. Magellan then said that he wished to go to Zubu and to depart the following morning. He asked for someone to guide him thither. The kings replied that the pilots would be available "any time. But later that evening the King of Mazaua changed his mind and said that he would himself conduct Magellan to Zubu but that he would first have to bring the harvest in. He asked Magellan to send him men to help with the harvest. 6. Monday, April 1 - Magellan sent men ashore to help with the harvest, but no work was done that day because the two kings were sleeping off their drinking bout the night before. 7. Tuesday, April 2 and Wednesday, April3- Work on the harvest during the "next to days, 1.e., Tuesday and Wednesday, the 2nd and 3rd of April. 8. Thursday, April 4-They leave Mazaua, bound for Cebu. Using the primary sources avallable, Jesuit priest Miguel A. Bernad in his work Butuan or Limasauwa: The Site of the First Mass in the Philippines: A Reexamination of Euidence (1981) lays down the argument that in the Pigafetta account, a crucial aspect of Butuan was not mentioned-the river. Butuan is a riverine settlement, situated on the Agusan River. The beach off Masno is in the delta of said river. It 18 a curious omission in the account of the river, which makes part of a distinct characteristic of Butuan's geography that seemed to be too important to be missed. Page 25 of 92 The Age of Exploration is a period of competition among European rulers to conquer and colonize lands outside their original domaims. Initialy, the goal was to find alternative routes by sea to get to Asia, the main source of spices and other commodities. Existing routes to Asia were mainly by land and cost very expensive. A sea route to Asia means that Europeans could access the spice trade directly, greatly reducing costs for traders. Spain's major foray into the exploration was through Christopher Columbus, who proposed to sail westward to find a shorteut to Asia. He was able to reach the Americas, which was then cut-off from the rest of the known world. Spain colonized parts of North America, Mexico, and South America in the sixteenth century. They were also able to reach the Philippines and claim it for the Spanish crown. Later on, other European rulers would compete with the activities of exploring and conquering lands. It must also be pointed out that later on, after Magellan s death, the survivors of his expedition went to Mindanao, and seemingiy went to Butuan. In this instance, Pigafetta vividly describes a trip in a river. But note that this account already happened after Magellan's death. Case Study 2: What Happened in the Cavite Mutiny? The year 1872 is a historic year of two events: the Cavite Mutiny and the martyrdom of the three priests: Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, later on immortalized as GOMBURZA. These events are very important milestones in Philippine history and have caused ripples throughout time, directly influencing the decisive events of the Philhppine Revolution toward the end of the century. While the significance is unquestioned, what made this year controversial are the ditferent sides to the story, a battle of perspectives supported by primary sources. ln this case study, we zoom in to the events of the Cavite Mutiny, a major factor in the awakening of nationalism among the Filipinos of that time. Spanish Accounts of the Cavite Mutiny The documentation of Spanish historian Jose Montero y Vidal centered on how the event was an attempt in overthrowing the Spanish government in the Philippines. Although regarded as a historian, his account of the mutiny was criticized as woefully biased and rabid for a scholar. Another account from the official report written by then Governor General Rafael Izquierdo implicated the native Page 26 of 92 clergy, who were then, active in the movement toward secularization of parishes. These two accounts corroborated each other. Primary Source: Excerpts from Montero's Account of the Cavity Mutiny Source: Jose Monteroy Vidal, "Spanish Version of the Cavite Mutiny of 1872," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 269- 273. The abolition of privileges enjoyed by the laborers of the Cavite arsenal of exemption from the tribute was, according to some, the cause of the insurrection. There were, however, other causes. The Spanish revolution which overthrew a secular throne, the propaganda carried on by an unbridled press against monarchical principles, attentatory [sic] of the most sacred respects towards the dethroned majesty; the democratic and republican books and pamphlets; the speeches and preachings of the apostles of these new ideas in Spain; the outbursts of the American publicists and the eriminal policy ot the senseless Governor whom the Revolutionary government sent to govern the Philippines, and who put into practice these ideas were the determining circumstances which gave rise, among certain Filipinos, to the idea of attaining their independence. It was towards this goal that they started to work, with the powerful assistance of a certain section of the native clergy, who out of spite toward friars, made common cause with the enemies of the mother country. At various times but especlally in the beginning of year 1872, the authorities received anonymous communications with the information that a great uprising would break out against the Spaniards, the minute the fleet at Cavite left for the South, and that all would be assassinated, including the friars. But nobody gave importance to these notices. The conspiracy had been going on Since the days of La Torre with utmost secrecy. At times, the principal leaders met either in the house of Filipino Spaniard, D. Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, or in that of the native priest, Jacinto Zamora, and these meetings were usually attended by the curate of Bacoor, the soul of the movement, whose energetic character and immense wealth enabled him to exerc1se a strong infuence. Primary Source: Excerpts from the Official Report of Governor Izquierdo on the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 Source: Rafael Izquierdo, "Official Report on the Cavite Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 281-286. Page 27 of 92...It seems definite that the insurrection was motivated and prepared by the native clergy, by the mestizos and native lawyers, and by those known here as abogadillos.. The instigators, to carry out their criminal project, protested against the injustice of the government in not paying the provinces for their tobacco crop, and against the usury that some practice in documents that the Finance department gives crop owners who have to sell them at a loss. They encouraged the rebellion by protesting what they called the injustice of having obliged the workers in the Cavite arsenal to pay tribute starting January 1 and to render personal service, from which they were formerly exempted.. Up to now it has not been clearly determined if they planned to establish a monarchy or a republic, because the Indios have no word in their language to describe this different form of government, Whose head in Filipino would be called hari; but it turns out that they would place at the head of the government a priest.. that the head selected would be D. Jose Burgos, or D. Jacinto ZamOrä. Such is... the plan of the rebels, those who guided them, and the means they counted upon for its realization. It is apparent that the accounts underscore the reason for the "revolution": the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the workers of the Cavite arsenal such as exemption trom payment of tribute and being employed in polos y servicios, or force labor. They also identified other reasons which seemingly made the issue a lot more serious, which included the presence of the native clergy, who, out of spite aganst the Spanish friars, "conspired and supported the rebels. Izquierdo, in an obviously biased report, highlighted that attempt to overthrow the Spanish government in the Philippines to install a new "hari in the persons of Fathers Burgos and Zamora. According to him, native clergy attracted supporters by giving them charismatic assurance that their fight would not fail because they had God's support, aside from promises of lofty rewards such as employment, wealth, and ranks in the army. In the Spaniard's accounts, the event of 1872 was premeditated, and was part of a big conspiracy among the educated leaders, mestizos, lawyers, and residents of Manila and Cavite. They allegedly plan to liquidate high ranking Spanish officers, then kill the friars. The signal they identified among these conspirators of Manila and Cavite was the rockets fired from Intramuros. The accounts detail that on 20 January 1872, the district of Sampaloc celebrated the feast of the Virgin of Loreto, and came with it were some fireworks display. The Caviteños allegedly mistook this Page 28 of 92 as the signal to commence with the attack. The 200-men contingent led by Sergeant Lamadrid attacked Spanish officers at sight and seized the arsenal. Izquierdo, upon learning of the attack, ordered the reinforcement of the Spanish forces in Cavite to quell the revolt. The "revolution was easily crushed, when the Manileños who were expected to aid the Caviteños did not arrive. Leaders of the plot were killed in the resulting skirmish, while Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were tried by a court-martial and sentenced to be executed. Others wno were implicated such as Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Ma.Regidor, Jose and Pio Basa, and other Filipino lawyers were suspended from the practice of law, arrested, and sentenced to life imprisonment at the Marianas Island. Izquierdo dissolved the native regiments of artillery and ordered the creation of an artillery force composed exclusively by Peninsulares. On 17 February 1872, the GOMBURZA were executed to serve as a threat to Filipinos never to attempt to fight the Spaniards again. Differing Accounts of the Events of 1872 Two other primary accounts exist that seem to counter the accounts of Izquierdo and Montero. First, the account of Dr. Trinidad Hermenegildo Pardo de Tavera, a Pilipino scholar and researcher, who wrote a Filipino version of the bloody incident in Cavite. Primary Source: Excerpts from Pardo de Tavera's Account of the Cavite Mutiny Source: Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, "Filipino Version of the Cavity Mutiny," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 274 280. This uprising among the soldiers in Cavite was used as s powerful level by the Spanish residents and by the friars. the Central Government in Madrid had announced its intention to deprive the friars in these islands of powers of intervention in matters of civil government and of the direction and management of the university.. it was due to these facts and promises that the Filipinos had great hopes of an improvement in the affairs of their country, while the friars, on the other hand, feared that their power in the colony would soon be complete a thing of the past....Up to that time there had been no intention of secession from Spain, and the only aspiration of the people was. to secure the material and education advancement of the country... Page 29 of 92 According to this account, the incident was merely a mutiny by Filipino soldiers and laborers of the Cavite rsenal to the dissatisfaction arising from the draconian policies of Izquierdo, such as the abolition of privileges and the prohibition of the founding of the school of arts and trades tor Filpinos, which the General saw as a smokescreen to creating a political club. Tavera is of the opinion that the Spanish friars and Izquierdo used the Cavite Mutiny as a way to address other issues by blowing out oE proportion the isolated mutiny attempt. During this time, the Central Government in Madrid was planning to deprive the friars of all the powers ot lntervention in matters of civil government and direction and management ot educational institutions. The friars needed something to justity their continuing dominance in the country, and the mutiny provided such opportunity. However, the Central Spanish Government introduced an educational decree fusing sectarian schools run by the friars into a school called the Philippine Institute. The decree aimed to improve the standard of education in the Phiippines by requiring teaching positions in these schools to be filled by competitive examinations, an improvement welcomed by most Filipinos. Another account, this time by French writer Edmund Plauchut, complemented Tavera's account and analyzed the motivations of the 1872 Cavite Mutiny. Primary Source: Excerpts from Plauchut's Account of the Cavite Mutiny Source: Edmund Plauchut, The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 and the Martyrdom of Gom-Bur-Za," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Souroces of Philippine History, Volume 7 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 251-268. General La Torre.. created a junta composed of high officials... including some friars and six Spanish officials.... At the same time there was created by the government in Madrid a committee to investigate the same problems submitted to the Manila committee. When the two finished work, it was found that they came to the same conclusions. Here is the summary of the reforms they considered necessary to introduce: 1. Changes in tariff rates at customs, and the methods of collection. 2. Removal of surcharges on foreign importations. 3.Reduction of export fees Page 30 of 92 4. Permission for foreigners to reside in the Philippines, buy real estate, enjoy freedom of worship, and operate commercial transports fiying the Spanish fiag. 5.Establishment of an advisory council to inform the Mnister of Overseas Affairs in Madrid on the necessary retorms to be implemented. 6. Changes in primary and secondary education. 7. Establishment of an Institute of Civil Administration in the Philippines, rendering unnecessary the sending home of short-term civil officials every time there is a change of ministry. 8. Study of direct-tax system. 9. Abolition of the tobacco monopoly....The arrival in Manila of General Izquierdo... put a sudden end to all dreams of reforms... the prosecutions instituted by the new Governor General were probably expected as a result of the bitter disputes between the Filipino clerics and the triars. Such a policy must really end in a strong desire on the part ot the other to repress cruelly. In regard to schools, it was previously decreed that there should be in Manila a Society of Arts and Trades to be opened in March of 1871... to repress the growth of liberal teachings, General Izquierdo suspended the opening of the school... the day previous to the scheduled inauguration.. The Filipinos had a duty to render service on public roads construction and pay taxes every year. But those who were employed at the maestranza ot the artillery, in the engineering shops and arsenal of Cavite, were exempted trom this obligation from time immemorial... Without preliminaries of any kind, a decree by the Governor withdrew from such old employees their retirement privileges and declassified them into the ranks ot those who worked on public roads. The friars used the incident as a part ot a larger conspiracy to cement their dominance, which had started to show cracks because of the discontent of the Filipinos. They showcased the mutiny as part of a greater conspiracy in the Philippines by Fipinos to overthrow the Spanish Government. Unintentionally, and more so, propheticaly, the Cavite Mutiny of 1872 resulted in the martyrdom ot GOMBURZA, and paved the way to the revolution culminating in 1898. Page 31 of 92 The GOMBURZA is the collective name of the three martyred priests Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora, Who were tagged as the masterminds of the Cavite Mutiny. They were prominent Filipino priests charged with treason and sedition. It is believed that the Spanish clergy connected the priests to the mutiny as part or a conspiracy to stifle the movement of secular priests who desired to have their own parishes instead of being merely assistants to the regular friars. The GOMBURZA were executed by garrote in public, a scene purportedly witnessed by a young Jose Rizal. Their martyrdom is widely accepted as the dawn of Philippine nationalism in the nineteenth century, with Rizal dedicating his second novel, El Filibusterismo, to their memory: “The Government, by enshrouding your trial in mystery and pardoning your co-accused, has suggested that some mistake was committed when your fate was decided; and the whole of the Philippines, in paying homage to your memory and calling you martyrs, totally rejects your guilt. The Church, by refusing to degrade you, has put in doubt the crime charged against you. Case Study 3: Where Did the Cry of Rebellion Happen? Momentous events swept the Spanish colonies in the late nineteenth century, including the Philippines. Journalists of the time referred to the phrase El Grito de Rebelion" or "Cry of Rebellion" to mark the start of these revolutionary events, identifying the places where it happened. In the Philippines, this happened in August 1896, northeast of Manila, where they declared rebellion against the Spanish colonial government. These events are important markers in the history of colonies that struggled for their independence against their colonizers. The controversy regarding this event stems from the identification of the date and place where the Cry happened. Prominent Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo emphasizes the event when Bonifacio tore the cedula or tax receipt before the Katipuneros who also did the same. Some writers identified the first military event with the Spaniards as the moment of the Cry, for which, Emilio Aguinaldo commissioned an "Himno de Balintawak to inspire the renewed struggle after the Pact of the Biak-na-Bato failed. A monument to the Heroes of 1896 was erected in what is now the Page 32 of 92 intersection of Epifanio de los Santos (EDSA) Avenue and Andres Bonifacio Drive-North Diversion road, and from then on until 1962, the Cry of Balintawak was celebrated every 26th of August. The site of the monument was cho8en for an unknown reason. Different Dates and Places of the Cry Various accounts of the Cry give different dates and places. A guardia civil, Lt. Olegario Diaz, identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 25 August 1896. Teodoro Kalaw, Filipino historian, marks the place to be in Kangkong, Balintawak, on the last week of August 1896. Santiago Alvarez, a Katipunero and son of Mariano Alvarez, leader of the Magdiwang faction in Cavite, put the Cry in Bahay Toro in Quezon City on 24 August 1896. Pio Valenzuela, known Katipunero and privy to many events concerning the Katipunan stated that the Cry happened in Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Historian Gregorio Zaide identified the Cry to have happened in Balintawak on 26 August 1896, while Teodoro Agoncillo put it at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896, according to statements by Pio Valenzuela. Research by historians Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacion, and Ramon Villegas claimed that the event took place in Tandang Sora's barn in Gulod, Barangay Banlat, Quezon City, on 24 August 1896. Primary Source: Accounts of the Cry Guillermo Masangkay Source: Guillermo Masangkay, "Cry of Balintawak" in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 307-309. On August 26th, a big meeting was held in Balintawak, at the house of Apolonio Samson, then cabeza of that barrio of Caloocan. Among those who attended, I remember, were Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Aguedo del Rosario, Tomas Remigio, Briccio Pantas, Teodoro Plata, Pio Valenzuela, Enrique Pacheco, and Francisco Carreon. They were all leaders of the Katipunan and composed the board of directors of the organization. Delegates from Bulacan, Cabanatuan, Cavite, and Morong were also present. At about nine o'clock in the morning of August 26, the meeting was opened with Andres Bonifacio presiding and Bmilio Jacinto acting as secretary. The purpose was to discuss when the uprising was to take place. Teodoro Plata, Briccio Pantas, and Pio Valenzuela were all opposed to starting the revolution too early... Andres Bonifacio, sensing that he would lose in the discussion then, left the session hall and talked to the people, who were waiting outside for the result of the meeting of the leaders. He told the people that the leaders were Page 33 of 92 arguing against starting the revolution early, and appealed to them in a fiery speech in which he said: "You remember the tate of our countrymen who were shot in Bagumbayan. Should we return now to the towns, the Spaniards will only shoot us. Our organization has been discovered and we are all marked men. If we don't start the uprising, the Spaniards will get us anyway. What then, do you say? "Revolt!" the people shouted as one. Bonifacio then asked the people to give a pledge that they were to revolt. He told them that the sign of slavery of the Filipinos were (Sic) the cedula tax charged each citizen. "If it is true that you are ready to revolt... I want to see you destroy your cedulas. It will be a sign that all of us have declared our severance from the Spaniards. Pio Valenzuela Source: Pio Valenzuela, "Cry of Pugad Lawin," in Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide, Documentary Sources of Philippine History, Volume 8 (Manila: National Book Store, 1990), 301-302. The first place of refuge of Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, Procopio Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Aguedo del Rosario, and myself was Balintawak, the first five arriving there on August 19, and I, on August 20, 1896. The first place where some 500 members of the Katipunan met on August 22, 1896, was the house and yard of Apolonio Samson at Kangkong. Aside from the persons mentioned above, among those who were there were Briccio Pantas, Alejandro Santiago, Kamon Bernardo, Apolonio Samson, and others. Here, views were only exchanged, and no resolution was debated or adopted. It was at Pugad lawin, the house store-house, and yard of Juan Ramos, son of Melchora Aquino, where over 1,000 members of the Katipunan met and carried out considerable debate and discussion on August 23, 1896. The discussion was on whether or not the revolution against the Spanish government should be started on August 29, 1896... After the tumultuous meeting, many of those present tore their cedula certificates and shouted "Long live the Philippines! Long live the Philippines! From the eyewitness accounts presented, there is indeed marked disagreement among historical witnesses as to the place and time of the occurrence of the Cry. Using primary and secondary sources, tour places have been identified: Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin, and Bahay Toro, while the dates vary: 23, 24, 25, or 26 August 1896. Valenzuela's account should be read with caution: He once told a Spanish investigator that the "Cry happened in Balintawak on Page 34 of 92 Wednesday, 26 August 1896. Much later, he wrote in his Memoirs of the Revolution that it happened at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896. Such inconsistencies in accounts should always be seen as a red fiag when dealing with primary sources. According to Guerrero, Encarnacion, and Villegas, all these places are in Balintawak, then part of Caloocan, now, in Quezon City. As for the dates, Bonifacio and his troops may have been moving from one place to another to avoid being located by the Spanish government, which could explain why there are several accounts of the Cry. Self-assessment 4 True or False. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, write false in the space provided. ______1. Historical interpretation is based on the historian’s judgment on how the past should be seen. ______2. We make sense of the past through historical interpretation. ______3. Multiperspectivity is a quality of historical writing attributed to a variety of lenses that may be used to view the past. ______4. There is only one account of the first Catholic Mass in the Philippines. ______5. The significance of the martyrdom of the GOMBURZA is questioned by historians. ______6. The Cavite Mutiny is an event that led to the extinction of the GOMBURZA. ______7. The Cry of the Rebellion happened in present-day Quezon City. ______8. The site of the monument to the Heroes of 1896 was chosen because this is the actual place where the Cry of the Rebellion happened. TO DO! Assignment 2 Critical essay about a primary source; students are to discuss the importance of the text, the authors background, the context of the document, and its contribution in understanding Philippine History. Topics will be distributed to you in your group chat. Format and Rubric Page 35 of 92 are indicated in the course requirements and Deadlines in your course guide. REFERENCES Candelaria, J. L., & Alphora, V. C. (2018). Readings in Philippine History. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company, inc. Torres, J. V. (2018). BATIS Sources in Philippine History. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. Christopher F. B., Raymond E. B, Julie C. L., Fatima F. R., Tecah C. S. (2006) Philippine History Coursebook, Trinitas Publishing. INC. Page 36 of 92 Chapter/ Module 3: Occupations in the Philippines LEARNING OBJECTIVES  Describe and analyze the reaction of the early Filipinos to Spanish Occupation  Analyze the different economic policies of the Americans in the Philippines that made impact to the society during and after the American rule  Effectively communicate and articulate the historical analysis of a particular evemt or issue that could help other people understand and manage present dat issues and concerns. Lesson 1. Spanish Occupation in The Philippines Lesson 1.1: Spanish Colonial Way of Life a. Spanish Colonial Experience The Spanish Expansion is a result of various forces. Aside from the Philippines, the Spaniards have already colonized parts of South, North, and Central America. The inclusion of the Philippines resulted out of the attempts of Spaniards to control the spice trade in the Moluccas islands. Aside from the interests in spices, Spain had been motivated by its mercantilist nature or accumulation wealth in the form of gold. This was simultaneous with the invention of new technologies needed for exploration like the compass and sextant. Maps were also refined at this time that greatly aided the explorers. Before Spain actually decided to occupy the Philippines, two noted voyages already reached the Philippines. This was Magellan voyage in 1521 and the Villalobos voyage in 1543. These did not start Spanish colonialism although they provide information and fed the interest of the Spanish government to finally take the islands. In 1565, Legaspi carried the Spanish flag and set up in the Philippine islands another colony for Spain. This commenced the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines. Exploration and colonization during this time were realized through contractual agreements between the Crown and the Conquistadores. In essence, the Consquistadores conquered for Spain but they shall share in the riches of the new territories they conquered. Thus, conquistadores like Legaspi instituted measures both for the pacification of the people and the satisfaction of their private goals. It is within this frame that we understand that the pacification efforts of the colonizers were also coupled with exploitation. Page 37 of 92 b. Instruments of Pacification and Exploitation Encomienda. A system of organizing territories to be under the care of an Encomendero. It was an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tributes from the natives. The Encomendero unit for the purpose of extracting tributes from the natives. The Encomendero had the power to collect tributes and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of the encomienda. The Encomienda shall take care of the welfare of the natives. 1. Protect natives by maintaining peace and order 2. Support missionaries in conversion to Catholicism 3. Help in defense of country. The services are compensated from the shares an Encomendero can get from the tributes and the services of the natives. So, while the system was meant to facilitate the organization and administration of the colony, the Encomendero gave a negative image to it. This system was characterized by greed and cruelty. It was an opportunity for one to enrich oneself primarily by collection of tribute or unlawful exaction of numerous services. a. Tributor. This is levying of tax to all Filipinos aged 19-60 except government employees, soldiers with distinguished services, decendants of Lakandula and some few native chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the church, and government witnesses. The alcalde mayors, encomendero, gobernadorcillo, and the cabezas acted as tribute collectors. The Spanish form of “taxation” was by itself heavy for the native. But this was aggravated by the force and abuses that accompanied its implementation. Soldiers were used to escort tax collectors to force collection and these often resulted to violence. Worst, of course, is the act of collecting much more than what the law required by the tax collectors. The abusive nature of this policy is evidenced by the fact that Filipinos who joined the revolts later on cite the exploitative nature of tribute collection as a chief cause. In Apayao, for example, they constructed tribute as a monster that could kill people. The understanding is borne by the fact that the Ilokanos who entered the Apayao territory related that they were scared of the tribute that has killed several of them. b. Polo Y Servicio. This is another colonial policy that obliged male natives aged 16-60 except chieftains and their eldest son to serve 40 days each year in labor pools. The labor pools refer to the site of labor that were mostly of construction kind. The natives were Page 38 of 92 asked to build buildings both for the church and the government. They were also made to make roads and build ships. This policy was meant to help set up of government infrastructure and the laborers were even given ration of rice and paid minimal amounts. There were other regulations to ensure the protection of the workers. In practice though, all these regulations were violated. Laborers were not paid and were not given any rice ration. The policy became insensitive to the need of the communities so that it was still enforced in time of planting or harvest seasons. In the end, polo y servicio became a forced labot that contributed to famine experiences and the destruction of communities. c. Bandala. This is another policy meant to augment the finances of the colonial government. It required the compulsory sale of products to the government. Communities were given quotas to produce and sold only to the government. The prices set by the government were lower than the prevailing prices of these products but were sold back to the people for a high price. This practice formed natives to be indebted to the chieftain entrenching the socio-economic position of the chief. In worst cases, which was usually the case, farmers were not paid at all of their produce and were given promissory notes. In effect, this policy became a virtual confiscation of natives’ products. Divide and Rule: This is a military strategy utilized by the Spaniards against the natives. In this method, native mercenaries were used against other groups to beef op limited military contingency of the Spaniards. Ny its very nature, it was exploitative as the inter- village warfare tradition of the early Filipinos was reinforced to serve the interests of the colonizers. The policies provide clear examples as to how the colonial policies impacted on the native Filipinos. For them, the policies were exploitative even if these were just part of the pacification process of the Spaniards. These difficulties were compounded by the constant war Spain was into against the Dutch and Portuguese. In all the abusive policies, the traditional head of barangay as the Maginoo and Datu became intermediaries. They were converted into willing allies of the Colonizers and their powers and authority were complicated by the colonizers. As traditional barangay authority, they were used as intermadiaries between the natives and the Spaniards. Political privilege was also granted by Spaniards as tribute collectors, Page 39 of 92 gobernadorcillos and thus helped in mobilizing labor for government construction of projects. Economically, the Chiefs were given the opportunity and took advantage of the concept of private property of land. In the end, the traditional chiefs were transformed into a willing ally and were called principals. One can see the prestige of principalia in the social hierarchy of the period. Of the native Filipinos, they were ranked higher next to the Spaniards. Self-assessment Task 1 Compare and contrast the administration of the local government units during the Spanish period with those of the present. Spanish Period Present Conclusion: _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ ________ Page 40 of 92 Lesson 1.2: Filipino Nationalism a. Early Revolts and Resistance Given the exploitive nature of Spanish colonialism, early Filipinos chose to revolt against the regime. Among the earliest revolts were those by Lakandula in Manila. Revolts became an indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish Rule. Revolts became an indispensable response of early Filipinos to Spanish rule. In the 1600’s nativistic revolts characterized the reactions of the people towards the Spanish rule. More complicated revolts continued up to the 1700’s. the earlier revolts could be generalized as revolts from ordinary natives. These revolts could be generalized as revolts from ordinary natives. These revolts include Tamblot, Bankaw, Tapar, Dagohoy, Sumuroy, Dabao, and others. Since many of the leaders of these revolts were babaylanes, or traditional priests, one of important underlying objective was to go back to old native religion (nativistic). As such leaders emerge as self-proclaimed messiahs saving the people from evil effects of colonization. The second group of revolts were those initiated by local chiefs, or the princiipales, whose type of leadership are already complicated by Spanish ways. This type of revolt manifested class interest where the mass revolts were taken advantage of in the desire to seize power for themselves. This is why many of these were open to compromises. Examples of this type of revolt are the revolts of Maniago, Malong, Gumapos, Palaris, Silang, and others. Both types of revolts, however, contained the desire to improve the hardship brought about by the colonial rule. Economic grievance remained the primary reason why people supported groups and leaders versus Spaniards. b. The Igorot Resistance to Spanish Interests and the Price of Igorot Independence The Igorots, together with the Muslims in Mindanao were the two biggest groups that were not colonized by the Spaniards. During the entire 300 plus years of Spanish rule, these groups remained independent. This work shall consider only the Igorot resistance. A note on the word Igorot should be made. Historically speaking, the groups that were referred by Spanish documents as Igorots were the inhabitants of Benguet and Bontoc. Other groups in the Cordillera region were called distint names such as Mandayas for the Apayao, Itneg for the upper Abra area, Ifugao for Ifugaos. This would explain Page 41 of 92 the reluctance of many people outside Benguet and Bontoc to be considered as Igorots. Etymologically, Igorot was coined with the use pf two old Austronesian words as “gorot”, meaning mountain, and “I” referring to the source/place or from where one belongs. It is etymological sense that this work adopts the word Igorot to refer to all people in the Cordillera as Igorots or “from the mountains.” The Spaniards entered the Cordillera for many reasons but gold was initially the primary aim. As soon as the colonizers learned of Igorot gold in the region, expeditions were immediately sent to secure it. In the 1600, several attempts like those of Aldana, Carino, and Quirante. They have taken samples of ores and were brought to Manila for tests. The attempt at reducing the Igorots to Christianity was another motivation for the Spaniards. The Augustinians entered the mountain from the Ilocos areas while the Dominicans penetrated Ifugao in the east. Another reason for Spanish intrusion into the Cordillera was simply to extend the conquered territories or to protect the conquered areas of the lowlands. Still another motivations was the punitive expeditions, which were meant to punish the Igorots for the resistance they have been showing. However, it was the sabotage of the tobacco monopoly that really angered the Spaniards to sponsor succeeding punitive expeditions against the Igorots. The most successful of these expeditions was the Galvey expedition. Guillermo Galvey led a 10- year campaign against the Igorots from 1829-1839, burning tobacco plantations and communities, and crushing Igorot opposition. It was the Galvey expeditions that finally opened the region to Spanish conquest. By the later part of 1840’s up to the 1950’s, the Spaniards were able to set up military posts in key areas in the Cordillera. These posts were called Commandancia Politico-Militares, which were manned by military people and intended for collection of taxes. Confronted by the instrusions, the Igorots responded in different ways but almost always resisting all the plans of the intruders. In many instances, Igorots simply abandoned their communities when they learn of Spanish arrival. They would retreat into deeper parts of the mountain and wait until the Spaniards are gone. If the Igorots were ready, though, they would engage the Spanish troops with their traditional weapons as spears, head axes, and bolos. Although the Igorot weapons were of inferior kind, they relied heavily on ambushes utilizing the mountainous landscape to their advantages. In some recorded instances, the Igorots used the weaknesses of the Spanish weapons they came to learn and won over the more supposedly superior weapons. Page 42 of 92 In the Christianization efforts, the Spaniards were able to convert some Igorots into Christianity. Most of these converts have been relocated in the lowland areas of Ilocos, La Union and Nueva Viscaya. Overall through, the Igorots remained pagans. Whereabout of their gold have also been denied to Spaniards and other foreigners. These responses have been largely successful so that at the end of the Spanish colonial rule, the Igorots remained independent. A discussion of the Igorot resistance is incomplete without considering the price that the Igorots had to pay for their freedom. One is the periodic destruction of homes. Most often than not, the Spaniards burned villages along their route. These were reconstructed by the Igorots only to be destructed with the next Spanish expedition. Another is the estrangement between the lowlanders and the Igorots. Before Spanish colonization, it has been the case that the two were partners in trade. The lowlanders brought up salt, animals, threads, and fish to the highlands. Igorots brought down gold, beeswax, and other forest products. With the colonization of the lowlands and the resistance of Igorots, the friendly relation soured. This is basically

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