Memory Processes PowerPoint PDF

CHAPTER 8 HOW DO WE REMEMBER WHAT WE KNOW? Memory Memory stages and types  Memory Defined  Memory  our ability to store and retrieve information over time  We’re very good at remembering:...

CHAPTER 8 HOW DO WE REMEMBER WHAT WE KNOW? Memory Memory stages and types  Memory Defined  Memory  our ability to store and retrieve information over time  We’re very good at remembering:  simple things: where we parked; who the Prime Minister is; people’s faces; song lyrics(?)  complex things: how to ride a bike; how to play a video game, song lyrics Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types, Stages, and Processes  Stages  Sensory  Short-term  Long-term  Memory types  Explicit  Implicit  Processes  Encoding > Storage > Retrieval Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory  What do we mean by ‘short-term memory’?  “I have terrible ‘short-term memory’”  people often use this in a way that differs from how it is operationally defined in psychology  How long is different type of information available to us?  How fast does information decay?  Does all information reach long-term memory? Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Sensory Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Sensory  Sensory Memory  brief storage of sensory information  temporary, fleeting  gives the brain a chance to process incoming information  if deemed important enough, information gets passed along to next stage  “Iconic memory”  visual sensory memory; large capacity but short duration (fraction of a second!) Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Sensory  Everything is always fading…  “Echoic memory”  auditory sensory memory  can last longer than iconic memories: 2-4 seconds  allows you to remember the words you said at the beginning of a sentence when you get to the end of it, or to take notes during lecture Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Short-term Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Short-term  Short-term Memory (STM)  where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for processing  longer than a few seconds but less than a minute  used to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information  also referred to as “working memory”  STM has capacity limits Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Short-term  “leaky bucket” analogy  Capacity  7 +/- 2 items  Chunking  organizing information into groups (i.e., ‘chunks’) thus allowing for more information to be held in STM Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Short-term  Maintenance rehearsal  repeating information with the goal of keeping it in STM  allows further processing and potential transfer to longer storage  information is lost if maintenance rehearsal disrupted Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Long-term Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Stages of Memory: Long-term  Long-term Memory (LTM)  memory storage that can hold information for the longest duration  barring injury and disease, duration often lifelong  capacity: potentially infinite  The various “Types of Memory” = different types of LTM Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Explicit  Explicit Memory  knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered  requires conscious awareness  “Who is the Prime Minister?”  “What did you have for lunch on Monday?”  Both require conscious awareness, but are they the same kind of question? Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Explicit Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Explicit  Two sub-types of explicit memory  Semantic memory  our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world  “who is on the $10 bill?”  Episodic memory  our firsthand experiences of events  “where did you park?” Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Explicit  How might we measure explicit memory?  3 ways to test how well we remember semantic and episodic memory: Recall, Recognition, and Relearning  Recall: involves bringing forth information previously learned (e.g., short answer or essay)  Recognition: involves determining whether information has been previously seen or learned (e.g., multiple choice)  Relearning: involves assessing how well information is learned/processed when it is studied again after it was previously forgotten Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Implicit  Implicit Memory  the influence of experience on behaviour, even when we are unaware of those influences  does not require conscious awareness  “how do you ride a bike?”  “do you tend to feel happier after eating?”  “why did Little Albert resent stuffed animal toys?” Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Implicit Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Implicit  Three sub-types of implicit memory  Procedural memory  our unexplainable knowledge of how to do things  Priming  changes in our behaviour as a result of experiences that have previously happened  Classical Conditioning (associations)  we learn to associate neutral stimuli with other stimuli that generates a naturally occurring response to the previously neutral stimulus Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Implicit  Can measure the influence of priming with the word fragment test  Fill in the blanks:  _i__o_  _e_  _h_e_s  _u_i_  _n_e___t_  _u_l__y Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Types of Memory: Implicit  We are influenced every day by unconscious associations such as priming and classical conditioning  observing characters in a tv show smoking  looking at displays of a country’s flag  interacting with someone wearing an opposing team’s jersey Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/ Which processes cause information to become memories?  Memory  Moving information from STM to LTM (and often back again) involves 3 processes Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Processes: Encoding  Encoding  process by which we place the things we experience into memory  we don’t encode things that are not important  cannot remember it if it was never encoded  can improve the efficiency of encoding  several strategies  e.g., remembering people’s names Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Elaborative Rehearsal  Elaborative rehearsal  linking information to other information or material you already know  differs from maintenance rehearsal  makes things more relevant and meaningful  deeper processing  more effective strategy Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Elaborative Rehearsal: Study Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Processes: Retrieval  Retrieval  process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory  Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon  when we’re certain we know something but have difficulty recalling it  can often remember the first letter, or what it rhymes with, etc. Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Dependent Retrieval  We are more likely to retrieve items from memory when the conditions at retrieval are the same or similar to those of encoding  Context-Dependent Memory  an increase in retrieval when the external conditions at retrieval match the external conditions of learning/encoding (scuba divers)  State-Dependent Memory  an increase in retrieval when the internal conditions (physiological or psychological) conditions at retrieval match conditions at learning  substances, mood Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Context-Dependent Memory Study Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Primacy and Recency Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Primacy and Recency  Serial position curve  we retrieve more items that are presented at the beginning or at the end compared to items presented in the middle  Primacy Effect  tendency to remember stimuli presented early in a list  likely due to rehearsal pushing items from STM to LTM  Recency Effect  tendency to remember stimuli presented later in a list  likely due to maintenance rehearsal Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/ Forgetting: Who would you be without your memories?  Amnesia  Retrograde amnesia  an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time  childhood amnesia  amnesia that occurs following injury to the brain – might not recall what lead to the injury  Anterograde amnesia  inability to transfer information from STM to LTM  impossible to form new memories  Clive Wearing Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/ Biology and Memory  Biology Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Biology of Memory  Hippocampus  involved in processing LTM – explicit memory  Clive Wearing (anterograde amnesia)  London Taxi Drivers  Amygdala https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/  emotional memory File:Black_London_Cab.jpg  Cerebellum  implicit memory Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  LTP  Long-term Potentiation  strengthening of connections in the brain as a result of frequent activation / stimulation  occurs gradually  often during sleep (consolidation)  basis for learning and memory at the neuronal level Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/ Revisiting the question of accuracy vs. inaccuracy  Cognitive Biases  Cognitive Biases  errors in memory or judgement  there are several of these and they can each impact our memories in different ways  Table 8.3  Important to be aware of these for two reasons  relate back to the question of accuracy vs. inaccuracy  being aware of them assists us in avoiding making these errors Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/  Imperfect Memory  Can we rely on our accounts of memory to be accurate?  When we retrieve memories, we reactivate them  ’active’ memories in this way are open to tampering  this can lead to changes in the original memory due to new processing  Misinformation Effect – stop sign vs. yield sign  How might this impact eyewitness testimony? Cummings, J. A. and Sanders, L. (2019). Introduction to Psychology. Saskatoon, SK: University of Saskatchewan Open Press. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/