Abstract Expressionism PDF

Abstract Expressionism https://www.theartstory.org/movement/abstract-expressionism/ Artistic movement of the mid-20th century comprising diverse styles and techniques and emphasizing especially an artist's liberty to convey attitudes and emotions through nontraditional and usually nonrepresentation...

Abstract Expressionism https://www.theartstory.org/movement/abstract-expressionism/ Artistic movement of the mid-20th century comprising diverse styles and techniques and emphasizing especially an artist's liberty to convey attitudes and emotions through nontraditional and usually nonrepresentational means. Abstract art developed by American painters such as Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko and Willem de Kooning in the 1940s and 1950s. It is often characterised by gestural brush-strokes or mark-making, and the impression of spontaneity. Within abstract expressionism were two broad groupings: the so-called action painters, who attacked their canvases with expressive brush strokes; and the colour field painters who filled their canvases with large areas of a single colour. The action painters were led by Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning, who worked in a spontaneous improvisatory manner often using large brushes to make sweeping gestural marks. Pollock famously placed his canvas on the ground and danced around it pouring paint from the can or trailing it from the brush or a stick. In this way the action painters directly placed their inner impulses onto the canvas. The second grouping included Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman and Clifford Still. They were deeply interested in religion and myth and created simple compositions with large areas of colour intended to produce a contemplative or meditational response in the viewer. In an essay written in 1948 Barnett Newmann said: 'Instead of making cathedrals out of Christ, man, or ‘'life'’, we are making it out of ourselves, out of our own feelings'. This approach to painting developed from around 1960 into what became known as colour field painting, characterised by artists using large areas of more or less a single flat colour.  Art, Society, Human Week2: The Beginnings of Art and Its Foundations Dr. Ece Yücel Please read: Hugh Honour & John Fleming, A World History of Art, “Chapter 1: Before History”, pp. 20-33. !!! (You will be responsible) You can watch: (Recomended) National Geographic, Cave Art 101 Cave Art 101 | National Geographic The New York Times, Lascaux Caves, Paleolithic and New Again | The Daily 360 Lascaux Caves, Paleolithic and New Again | The Daily 360 | The New York Times Birth of «Art» The origins of outputs depicted as art When did art begin?The available information does not show exactly when art began. However, when looking at fundamental art history sources, researchers agree that the earliest identified examples of art objects belong to the prehistoric period. (Sources: Germain Bazin, 1986; Ernst Gombrich, 1950; Madelynn Dickerson, 2018; İsmail Gezgin, 2014; Hugh Honour & John Fleming, 1982) Where did art begin? The answer to this question has settled over time. Traditional art history sources begin with findings from Europe and the Near East. However, art did not begin in Europe, and there is no single place where art started. Prehistoric art examples can be found all over the world. Why did art begin? Although the initial point of origin cannot be precisely identified, there are theories about why the outputs that are depicted as art today were created. This will be examined in the following sections. As stated by art historian Germain Bazin, this period coincides with the time when prehistoric Homo sapiens "replaced less developed masses," thus marking the beginning of their dominance. Among the earliest examples of artwork in art history, according to traditional sources, are stone tools, figures, and cave paintings discovered in caves such as Altamira in Spain and Lascaux in France. These findings in the caves indicate the presence of Homo sapiens. Therefore, art historians like Bazin commonly base their assessments of early art on these caves. However, discoveries in recent years have proven that the outputs we call art today existed long before Homo sapiens. Cave Art Time Tunnel Upper Paleolithic Era: Aurignacian Culture (40,000 – 25,000 BCE) The first cave paintings: hand stencils and abstract red dots, followed later by primitive stylized human and animal images. Upper Paleolithic Era: Gravettian Culture (25,000 – 20,000 BCE) More precise and realistic cave paintings and engravings depicting larger herbivores along with predators. Upper Paleolithic Era: Solutrean Culture (20,000 – 15,000 BCE) Engravings and reliefs in caves that primarily depict large herbivorous animals, more common than paintings. In human history, the term "Prehistory" refers to the period before the invention of writing. The art of this period is studied in two eras: the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The early history of the human race was divided into three ages: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. The Stone Age was then subdivided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic (Old, Middle, and New). The ‘Woman from Willendorf’ and the ‘Man from Brno’ are products of a European Upper Paleolithic era, which flourished from France to Russia and is called ‘East Gravettian.’ The Gravettian (tool-making culture) is named after the site of La Gravette in the Dordogne region of France. The etymological roots are from Greek: "paleo" means old, "neo" means new, and "litho, lithos" means stone. Paleolithic art (Stone Age art) is believed to span from 35,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE, while Neolithic art (New Stone Age) is estimated to belong to the period between 6,000 BCE and 2,000 BCE. Upper Paleolithic Era: Magdalenian Culture (15,000 – 10,000 BCE) A broader range of colors, tools, and techniques are used; depictions of naturalistic hunter-gatherer life, but the focus is still on animals. Mesolithic Era (10,000 – 6,000 BCE) As the Ice Age ended, rock art increasingly appeared not inside caves but outside. Depictions of human figures gained importance. Neolithic Era (6,000 – 2,000 BCE) As people adopted a more settled lifestyle based on animal husbandry and grain farming, cave art diminished; ceramic art developed. The difference in the Neolithic period is that people were no longer nomadic but settled, having made advancements such as cultivating plants and domesticating animals. Among the productions of the era are clay pottery and stone sculptures. The ‘makers’ lived on the edge of an ice cap and subsisted by hunting a variety of wild animals. During the long and cold winters they gathered in settled communities of a hundred people or more. These villages were sited near a spring. Huts were built of mud, stone and mammoth bones. Each hut had a hearth where food would be cooked and water boiled. There were also workshops where implements were made of stone, bone, ivory and clay was modelled and baked. The emergence of specialised craftsmen. Oldest Art Outputs… For now… This precious and unique sculpture created in the Aurignacian tradition has been dated back to between 38,000 and 33,000 BC. Discovered in southwestern Germany, the small ivory carving of a female figure was known as the Venus of Hohle Fels or the Venus of Schelklingen. It was discovered in 2008 by a team of archaeologists led by Nicholas J. Conard of the University of Tübingen. Discovered in the Hohlenstein Stadel in the Swabian Alps of southwest Germany, the Lion Man of Hohlenstein Stadel is the oldest known anthropomorphic animal carving. The 38,000 BC sculpture is the earliest discovered artwork in Europe to depict a male figure. The Hohlenstein Stadel is one of three caves to produce important paleontological evidence. The 11- inch Lion Man was carved using simple flint cutting tools. This outstanding piece was discovered in 1939 by archaeologist Robert Wetzel. The Sulawesi cave art consists of hand stenciling dating back to at least 37,900 BC. It was one of the oldest paintings of its type ever discovered in the world. It is the second oldest painting in the world after the EL Castillo cave paintings which have been dated to around 39,000 BC. Discovered in Sulawesi, Indonesia, it has become a treasure among prehistoric artworks and something of a revolution in the study of the Sulawesi Island, Indonasia, 37.900 evolution of mankind These stone cave paintings contain abstract signs and hand stencils on the rock face. A variety of paintings were discovered in the cave of El Castillo by archaeologist Hermilio Alcalde del Rio, and a disk of red ochre called the Gallery of the Hands was subjected to uranium-thorium dating and found to date from at least 39,000 BC. It is still unknown if Neanderthals or Homo sapiens painted the cave. Neanderthals existed in Europe before 40,000 BC but they were becoming extinct when Homo sapiens migrated to Europe from Africa. The earliest artwork ever found in the form of an ivory carving makes most of the leading experts in the field believe that Homo sapiens, or modern humans, were responsible for the El Castillo paintings. El Castillo Cave, Spain, B.C.39.000 However, there is no further evidence to support this. Borneo Cave , Indonasia B.C.. 40.000 A cave on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia, is claimed to hold the oldest cave painting ever found. (Figurative, as there are older abstract drawings.) It is said to be 51,200 years old. The painting depicts a giant red pig and three humans around it. The painting was dated using a new technique. The news is from July 4, 2024. This Neanderthal cave, situated in southwest France, is famous for “cupule,” a primitive form of rock art that existed on the populated continent and was practiced around the three eras of the Stone Age. It is one of the oldest prehistoric forms of art in Europe. The extinction of Neanderthal man around 40,000 BC suggests that this art can be dated back to between 70,000 and 40,000 BC Discovered in Diepkloof Rock Shelter in Western Cape, South Africa, the Diepkloof eggshell engravings are another set of marvelous cave engravings dating to approximately 60,000 BC. They were found carved onto an ostrich eggshell using abstract art techniques such as crosshatching and geometric motifs One of the oldest pieces of sub-Saharan African art, the Blombos Cave rock art contains two pieces of ochre rock engraved with geometric abstract signs and a series of beads made from Nassarius kraussianus shells. They were discovered in 2002 and have been dated to around 70,000 BC. Their discovery suggests that pre-humans of that time were capable of generating and understanding symbols and abstraction. Roughly around 6cm in length and 2cm in diameter, the Venus of Tan-Tan is one of the oldest pieces of prehistoric sculpture and was discovered in the river Draa near the Moroccan town of Tan-Tan. It is believed that the artwork was done in the pre-Homo sapiens era. Surrounded by controversy, the Venus of Berekhat Ram is another of the oldest ancient prehistoric sculptures ever discovered. Some paleontologists believe that it was formed by natural erosion rather than created by human hands. It was discovered on the Golan Heights between Syria and Israel in 1981 by archeologist N. Goren-Inbar (Hebrew University of Jerusalem). It is thought to predate both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, possibly created by earlier hominids such as Homo erectus. The Bhimbetka and Daraki-Chattan cupoles are the oldest pieces of prehistoric art ever discovered and have been dated to around 700,000 BC, almost four times older than the Blombos Cave art. They were discovered in two ancient quartzite caves in the Madhya Pradesh region of central India. Rituals, Fertility, Abundance, Hunting, Magic, Communication, Death&After – Techniques In the Lascaux Caves of southern France, an unprecedented scale of prehistoric art dating to around 15,000 BCE from the Paleolithic era has been discovered. In this area, over six hundred paintings and more than fifteen hundred carvings of animals such as deer, bulls, horses, and cows with remarkable realism have been found. It is noted that the colors used in the artworks, including red, black, brown, and dark yellow, were obtained through natural minerals. While it is likely that the pigments were applied to the cave walls by hand, a more plausible method is through hollowed bones found near some of the paintings, covered with pigments, which were used to spray the pigments onto the walls. Among other methods and tools, large pieces of moss and animal hair, which are believed to have functioned as brushes, and flint pieces for carving lines and patterns have been identified. Another feature observed in the cave paintings is the use of perspective techniques. While most of the images, whether of animals or hunters, are depicted in profile, some animals were made using a complex method known as twisted perspective. In twisted perspective, most of the animal's body is shown in profile, but part of the head is turned to face the viewer directly. This technique gives the impression that the animal is alive, adding vibrancy and energy to the painting. In Paleolithic art, there are not many depictions of humans, and the existing ones are not as realistically portrayed as the animal depictions. On some walls, and sometimes next to the animal paintings, various handprints of different sizes have been found, along with negative handprints created by applying pigments around the hands using methods such as sponging, or spraying with bones or reeds. Patagonya , M.Ö. 9000  There are different theories regarding the reasons for the handprints: "I was here," Leaving a mark, Sending a message... Indicating personal participation or serving as a signature, Ritual or symbolic meaning, which could hold significance within their cultural contexts, Indication of danger, Directional signs, Symbols related to the identity of the group, a census, or a family portrait, Indicators of hidden supplies or similar in the cave, The desire for memory, record-keeping, or to be remembered. Gargas Cave, France In a study published in 2023, it was proposed that there could have been a Stone Age sign language. Hunting Magic, Abundant Hunt, Fertility Rituals; Shaman-Sorcerer Artist It is also a strong argument that those who made the paintings were special individuals. More talented individuals who also had symbolic and religious power, such as sorcerers/shamans/artists, created these paintings and performed the rituals. It is believed that these individuals possessed strong memories and imaginations (as they had no models). Art historian Germain Bazin explains why the skilled naturalistic style of the animal depictions found in the caves of France and Spain has never been surpassed by any earlier or later civilization with the following statement: "… it is because primitive humans believed they were engaging in a true act of creation while making these works, for primitive humans, the image was not merely an imitation." The fact that very large animals, which had little to no place in the human diet of that time (rarely or never consumed for meat), are predominantly depicted in the paintings suggests that the rituals were not solely about hunting. It was not about "eating" these animals but rather the "goodness of thinking about them." According to Bazin, the depictions possessed the abilities of the modeled animals, and these artworks were a kind of enchantment, a ritual, a magic session that aimed to dominate nature and transfer the abilities of those animals to the humans. The Paleolithic artist's intention was not to create a work of art; the purpose was to ensure a bountiful hunt, to succeed in hunting, to trap the prey, or to transfer the power of that animal to themselves. The fact that the depictions are so successful and detailed, and the use of twisted perspective to make the depicted creature as alive and realistic as possible, were all aimed at making the magic successful. The primitive artist was, in a sense, a shaman. According to Germain Bazin, the human figure was not prominently featured in depictions because it was not an element of the primitive magical system. The representations, which were painted or expressed in relief in dark caves with very little light and without a model, indicate that the primitive artist possessed a powerful imagination and memory. “The shaman-artist had to release his soul with intense mental focus during the enthusiasm of a religious ceremony and then invoke supernatural forces that identified him with the bison, mammoth, horse, or deer. This effort continued until the animal spirit took hold of the artist, leading him to depict the image of the animal on the cave walls.” According to archaeologist André Leroi-Gourhan, the paintings were not randomly or haphazardly distributed in the caves. However, these placements are not universal. At the same time, the uneven terrain, rocks, and cave walls led to directing the drawings to fit the shapes of nature, adapting the drawings to the appropriate sections. Archaeologists Iégor Reznikoff and Michel Dauvois conducted detailed studies in three caves in the Ariège region of France, where artworks were found. By singing and using notes that reached three octaves, they measured resonance in the caves. It was found that the areas with the highest resonance had a higher likelihood of containing paintings or carvings. Richard Leakey, who mentions this research in his book The Origin of Humankind, comments that Upper Paleolithic people might have sung in front of the cave paintings. "The unusual nature of the images and their placement in the most inaccessible depths of the caves suggest a ritualistic idea." Thus, the earliest "art" practices seem to indicate rituals. Magic, myth, and art represent the primitive human's effort to make sense of the universe they lived in and to dominate that universe in their own way. It reflects both a desire to integrate with the universe and to maintain internal coherence. Over time, we also see the slow development of self-awareness. As a result, a quest to understand both the external universe and their own inner world begins to take hold. There are also theories regarding the techniques used: Since the practitioners were believed to have shamanistic qualities and possibly entered a kind of trance, a 2021 study suggests that the artists might have been in a hallucinatory state. The artist/shamans specifically chose hard-to-reach, narrow areas deep within the caves. The lack of air in these areas, combined with the use of torches due to the darkness, could have led to hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation, which in turn could cause visions and hallucinations. This may have helped the artists reach an altered state of consciousness, allowing them to connect with the cosmos and inspiring their imagination. Another theory suggests that instead of keeping the figures in their memory, those painting in the dark, closed, narrow spaces made models from clay or stone (this is one interpretation of the found figurines). They would then paint the shadows of these models, cast by torchlight, onto suitable surfaces. This explains why many of the visuals primarily have outlines. Additionally, the length of the torch and the intensity of the flame were also important factors. Another mystery (which we also observe in Homo naledi and Neanderthals) is the presence of linear grids, interwoven curves, stick-like lines, rectangles, and strange geometric patterns mixed in among the realistic depictions of animals. Archaeologist David Lewis-Williams, along with his colleague Thomas Dawson, created a neuropsychological model, interpreting these as dreamlike products of hallucinations. They studied shamanistic art practices by examining the ancestral rituals of modern-day hunter-gatherers, such as the San people in Africa, who still live in this way. The shaman is a figure who can communicate with the spirit world, preserves the mythology of their society, passes it on to future generations, and often takes on the role of a healer. In the San people's tradition, shamans try to depict the dreamlike visions and images that appear while they are in a trance. It is also stated that while in a trance, shamans experience hallucinations where these visions can transform into half-human, half-animal figures. As we mentioned, tools initially did not have an artistic purpose. Later, aesthetically pleasing tools were found in caves that had never been used and were stored. It was also determined that these were kept in separate places. The works and tools, initially used for sorcery or special rituals, may have also been important for storing knowledge and passing it on to other individuals and future generations. Archaeologist Stephen Mithen stated, "… many artistic objects can be thought of as a tool: a tool to store information and assist in recalling stored information from memory." In the process of developing self-awareness, ornamental objects such as jewelry, beads, and accessories may not have been solely for decoration but could have also played significant roles in rituals, as amulets, or in representing social status and group dynamics. Stone Age Tools | Evolution of Stone Tools | Stone Tool Industries | Tools in the Paleolithic Age https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0fl-a3KZVI Neolitik Çağ Mikrolitik Çağ Spear-thrower carved with leaping horse, France, 12.000 BC Venus of Willendorf, B.C. 28,000 - 25,000 Venus de Milo , BC 130 - BC 100 Venus of Dolni Vestonice, Venus of Lespugne, Late Paleolithic Venus of Laussel, France, Czech Republic, 31.000- Period, Saint-Germain 29000-28000 27.000 "The Venus figurines, considered to be some of the oldest evidence of creative art, have been found across a wide geography from Europe to Siberia. Archaeologists continue to speculate about their purpose." The figure in the center is labeled with several possible interpretations of these figurines: Celebration of female sexuality in a matriarchal society. Erotic art examples. Possibly educational dolls or toys. Religious idols or symbols of goddess cults. Amulets or magical objects to promote fertility or ward off evil spirits. When the first examples of these figurines were found, they were named after Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. This is an ironic reference to these idealized images. The figures emphasize the sexual aspects of female anatomy: exaggerated breasts, large bellies and hips, and slender ankles. These represent real women, fertile women, rather than goddesses. Assuming that obesity was not common during these times, it is thought that the fatness of these female figures symbolizes fertility, survival, hopes for long life, and abundance. Specifically, looking at the depiction on the head of the Willendorf figurine, it has been interpreted as either hair (as an element of sexual attractiveness) or a kind of ritual headpiece. The sizes of Venus figurines range from 4 to 25 centimeters, while their main forms were preserved over thousands of years. This indicates a consistent and specific purpose. Some historians suggest that these figurines, fitting comfortably in a person’s hand, might have been carried as amulets or charms for fertility or protection against evil. Others argue that they were used in rituals during funeral ceremonies. Another interpretation is that these female figures could be self-portraits made by women without looking in a mirror (which explains the absence of faces). Ana Tanrıça Çatalhöyük, y. MÖ 6000 (baş restore edilmiş). Pişmiş toprak, yükseklik 20cm. Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi , Ankara. It is assumed that the Lion Man was also important for fertility and rituals.  the ivory figure of a man found in a grave in Brno, Czechoslovakia. It reveals the figure was used in a ritual which implies some form of importance and adornment to define cultural, social or religious status within a specific community. A small ivory head from Grotte du Pape, France reveals women dressed their heads in braids even during this remote period. Other small ivory and bone carvings show signs of being worn as pendents and carried about the person in pouches, perhaps as charms. One of the most extraordinary features in prehistoric art is that the subjects are visualised not conceptualised. They are based on what the eye sees and not what the mind knows concluding preliterate or tribal people having cultural or physical similarities with their early ancestors.  Lascaux, Geyikler, Geç Paleolitik Lascaux, M.Ö. 15.000 -10.000 Lascaux, M.Ö. 15.000, kaya üzerine pigment Altamira , M.Ö. 15.000-12.000 Tassili N’ Ajjer, Cezayir, M.Ö. 7000 There are theories about the transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic Age. The transition from a hunter-gatherer nomadic lifestyle to a productive settled lifestyle. The end of the Ice Age and climate changes are one reason. As many large-bodied animals became extinct (partly due to hunting) and the migration routes of other animals changed, they left humans behind. Consequently, hunting decreased. Population growth and the reduction of resources and gathered goods also played a role.  Çatalhöyük Çatalhöyük is a sophisticated Neolithic settlement resembling a city. The densely clustered houses of Çatalhöyük were made of wood and mudbrick. The village had no streets, and the houses had no doors. People entered their homes through the roof. Although there is no specific information about their beliefs, many structures that are clearly temples have been found. Clay and stone figurines have also been discovered. The paintings of Çatalhöyük are also very famous. Hunting scenes. The role of shamans is important. Hunting rituals, fertility, the power to fight... Many hunters are gathered around animals, some without tools. They are engaging with the animal, provoking it. This both distracts and angers the animal, while also showing that humans are now confident in overcoming nature and defeating death. The bull figure. The bull symbolizes strength, the power of nature, and later frequently represents immortality and divinity. Mocking the bull, defeating the bull. In Çatalhöyük, bull heads are often found on the walls as well. Mother Goddess from Çatalhöyük, circa 6000 BCE (head restored). Terracotta, height 20 cm. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. Stonehenge Its name comes from the Saxon language and means "place of hanging stones." Located near Salisbury, England. Construction began around 3000 BCE and took over a thousand years to complete. It consists of 150 undecorated, plain stones, some broken and some toppled. It is thought that there were originally at least 30 megaliths. Today, 17 megaliths form a circle, with an altar stone in the center, although it is unknown if this was its intended purpose. There are existing theories: The strongest theory is that it had a religious significance. Although human remains have been found, the view that it was used for sacrifices or offerings is not strongly supported. It has been suggested that it was a ceremonial center for Druids. Some scientists, a group of astronomers, argue that its purpose was technological: they believe it functioned as a Neolithic observatory, used to track the movements of the sun for a society whose livelihood depended on agriculture. It has been determined that the stones were placed in alignment with the summer solstice. The main agreed-upon theory is that it was a ceremonial and cult site, and also served astronomical purposes as a regional calendar. Human Evolution Compared to its counterparts and/or other species (such as primate cousins defined as humanoid and other species), sapiens, the species that could better adapt, had better and more dominant relationships, and was more open to diversity, declared its dominance. It is thought that if even one of the sensitive elements in this chain of events or equation had been missing, the evolutionary process would have taken a different path. Humans themselves have witnessed how the deficiencies in the equation shaped the paths for other species and cousins. The greatest distinguishing feature of humans is their propensity for problem-solving. According to Newman and Blanchard, problem-solving is essentially all that humans do. Humans created tools to address their shortcomings, and it is clear that without these developments, humans would not have been successful as a species. The collaboration between humans and machines began in the earliest ages, which is why humanity has survived. Initially, simple tools solved their problems, but every tool or device has its capacity limits (Newman & Blanchard, 2020). This reality pushed humans to develop new and better solutions and more advanced technologies for every new problem. Thus, humans evolved along with their collaboration with machines. With the characteristics determined by belief and thought systems, the creature we call "human" today has held a unique place on Earth, distinct from all other beings, since its earliest ancestors. According to general opinion, the elements that create this difference are intelligence and the use of reason. And nearly all belief and thought systems known in the world agree that humans are the only beings with consciousness and a high level of self-awareness. However, the concept of consciousness is not exclusive to humans. Many different living beings are at various levels of consciousness. Research and findings, particularly regarding animals, provide necessary examples As noted in Nathan H. Lents' work Human Errors, it is the imperfections that make us human. According to the author, with its "imperfect diet," functionally flawed eyes, tailless tailbone, and many other genetic and anatomical anomalies, humans continue to "persist with determination and grandeur" (Lents, 2019) in the struggle for survival despite natural selection. What makes us who we are is our imperfections... We are the ones who, despite the low odds, have survived this endless evolutionary conflict; we are the product of a resistance that has been carried on with determination for four billion years, despite many risks. The story of our imperfections is, in itself, a war story... After all, evolution operates through random mutations and the survival of not the perfect but the best adapted... When it comes to imperfections, the human story is unique. Similarly, in his work The Mythology of Art, İsmail Gezgin, in the Prehistoric Art (The Emergence of Myths) chapter, touches on the weakness of humans: "Humans are not the strongest creatures in the world, contrary to what is assumed. In fact, the opposite is true; they are one of the weakest links in the evolutionary biological structure. This is because they do not have a physical structure that can transform or adapt according to living conditions. Therefore, humans are the only beings among living creatures that are in a constant state of search." In addition to its intelligence, many factors play a role in this transformation, such as the fact that humans stand on two feet, which freed up their hands, the use of tools, and the migration to vast grasslands (savannas) due to climate change. Not only did this being, standing upright permanently and conserving energy, stand out because of tool usability. Findings show that before humans—species of the Homo genus—there were creatures that could stand on two feet and even use tools. Why didn't every creature descended from the same hominid family reach the title of "human"? It has been observed that animals descended from apes, such as chimpanzees and orangutans, as well as birds like crows, use tools. (Akçay, 2016). This is also interpreted as these animals imitating humans. Humans, too, have developed many of their abilities through imitation, being fundamentally mimetic beings. Homo Genus The species defined as modern humans is Homo sapiens sapiens. However, before this species and contemporaneous with it, there were other hominids, as well as groups belonging to the same genus. In the process of evolution, species coexisted, lived together, and even interbred. Their developments, over time, branched off in different directions and distributions, much like the branches of a tree. The first person to classify humans under the group of animals called Homo was Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist Carl von Linné. Known as the father of modern taxonomy, Linné (1707–1778) classified humans as Homo sapiens for the first time in the 10th edition of his work Systema Naturae (The System of Nature), which was first published in 1735. According to Carl von Linné, humans are Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus name, and sapiens means wise or knowledgeable. Other human species of the Homo genus, as well as earlier hominid genera, were later named based on fossil, skeletal, cranial, or partial skull discoveries, tool remnants, and even footprints. These were added to Linné's system of classification. Most of these species lived during overlapping or contemporaneous periods, but in general chronological order, the oldest Homo species is Homo habilis. There are still many unanswered questions about Homo species. While some of these questions have been answered over time with new findings, discoveries that give rise to new inquiries continue to this day. İnsan Aile Ağacı, Smithsonian NationalMuseum of NaturalHistory. What Does It Mean To Be Human? https://humanorigins.si.edu It has been scientifically proven that even before Homo sapiens, there were species with the ability to use their hands, utilize tools, and even create art. One of the most significant developments that paved the way for humans to become 'human' is the ability to permanently stand and walk upright on two legs. However, other species have also gone through similar evolutionary stages as humans or have experienced similar variations, and some other creatures, though not permanently, were also able to stand on two legs. According to Silvana Condemi and François Savatier, species such as Toumai, Orrorin, and later the Ardipithecus species went through a bipedal stage, though it was not permanent The first true bipedal species, which might be among the human ancestors, and whose status as human ancestors is not ruled out, are the Australopithecus species. The oldest evidence for Australopithecus is not fossils but rather preserved footprints dating back to 3.8 million years ago. These footprints, which belong to three individuals from the Australopithecus afarensis species, the same species to which the famous Lucy belongs, show striking similarities to the footprints humans leave while walking. The reason why these hominins evolved into bipedalism is not known for sure, but it is believed that the changing climate, which led forests to be replaced by vast savannas (grasslands), and the subsequent pressure on hominin species to adapt to this new habitat and exploit its resources more effectively, could be the cause. This hypothesis was proposed by paleontologist Yves Coppens in his 'East Side Story,' who was also part of the team that discovered Lucy." Lucy was a hominid from the Australopithecus afarensis species, which lived in Ethiopia approximately 3.2 million years ago. While it is common for such ancient fossils to be incomplete and heavily damaged, Lucy's skeleton was discovered almost intact (around 40% of the skeleton) in 1974 by an international team. The team included paleontologist and curator at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Donald Johanson, the famous British paleontologist Mary Leakey, and the French paleontologist Yves Coppens from the Collège de France, under the special invitation of French geologist and paleoanthropologist Maurice Taieb. During the celebration at the camp after the discovery, the Beatles’ song 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds' was playing, which inspired one of the team members to suggest naming the skeleton 'Lucy.' Although the exact cause of Lucy’s death is unknown, it has been determined that she was young but had reached adulthood Permanent bipedalism and standing upright, which are unique to the Homo species, provided an advantage to the weak human, filled with flaws, who was trying to adapt to its new habitat and make the most of the available resources by using its energy efficiently. Bipedalism also freed the hands of humans completely. Since they did not need to use their hands for walking, this opened up the possibility of dedicating them to different, more efficient tasks: throwing stones, hunting, protecting oneself, making tools, communicating, and taking care of babies, to name a few. Tool use and production are undoubtedly one of the most important stages that made humans what they are. The theory that the use of hands is unique to Homo and is the most significant development that shaped humans has been supported by the findings corresponding to the periods in which the Homo genus lived. However, the practical knowledge used in making tools is different from the knowledge that is based on the abstract understanding of a natural event. Knowing the theory does not guarantee the ability to perform it. For example, a scout can start a fire by rubbing dry branches together or by striking a flint to create sparks. But merely knowing theoretically that it is possible does not mean one can actually start a fire The species name of Homo habilis, defined as the earliest human species (which is thought to have lived between 2.4 million and 1.4 million years ago in East and South Africa), means 'skilled, handy, dexterous, or adept.' The reason for this is the assumption that this species was the first to make stone tools (Leakey, Tobias, & Napier, 1964). It is known that the oldest Homo fossil ever discovered was a jawbone found by a graduate student in Ethiopia in 2013, and it was determined to be 2.8 million years old. This bone is believed to belong to a member of the hominin family between Australopithecus and Homo habilis. However, in a new article published in Nature in 2015, it was announced that stone tools dating back 3.3 million years were discovered in West Turkana, Kenya. This discovery revealed that the first craftsman was not Homo as previously thought but was likely an Australopithecus (Harmand et al., 2015). It was concluded that the first tools were used by hominins who were not yet able to hunt or scare away large animals and who sought to obtain the remaining food from bones left behind by predators. The first 'tools' emerged to reach the marrow inside bones. What sets Homo habilis apart in craftsmanship is the evidence that it used one tool to make another (such as using a small stone to sharpen a stick), that it traveled kilometers to find useful stones, and that the act of carrying tools for future use demonstrated foresight (Torrey, 2018, p. 46). Although Homo habilis was more intelligent than its hominin predecessors, it was not yet conscious. According to the hypothesis of British psychologist Nicholas Humphrey, cited in E. Fuller Torrey's work, this species had the necessary equipment (brain, perception, impulsivity) but its minds were still empty. '...their brains were triggered by hunger or fear without being aware of any accompanying emotions, and their minds were not aware of the will accompanying voluntary actions...' (Torrey, 2018, p. 47). In summary, Homo habilis was smarter than the primates, hominins, and other Homo species that preceded it, but it was not aware of this (Torrey, 2018, p. 55). As hands were used more frequently, they developed further; palms, fingers, and wrists were equipped with extremely complex and delicate networks of muscles, nerves, and bones. The individual, skillful movements of each human finger, their ability to take on different shapes and functions, the sensitive sensory receptors on the skin, and the data provided by these receptors all demonstrate that the evolution of the human hand, as described by Condemi and Savatier, turned it into a programmable tool-making machine with incredible dexterity (Condemi & Savatier, 2020, p. 51). The delicate and refined 'design' evolution of the human hand, combined with the development of the Homo brain, allowed for the emergence of unique human productions and set humans apart from their primate cousins. The development of the brain that controls this hand further advanced Homo, placing it ahead of other hominins. Homo erectus, meaning 'upright man,' lived between 1.89 million and 110,000 years ago in North, East, and Southern Africa, as well as parts of Asia and East Asia. As its name suggests, Homo erectus symbolizes the process of bipedalism in humans. It is believed that this species was well-adapted to life on the ground, having developed the ability to walk and possibly run long distances, while losing the adaptations necessary for climbing trees. The emergence of Homo erectus is often associated in fossil records with the first major technological leap in stone tool-making, particularly with the development of early hand axes. In 2021, a collection of stone tools, dating back approximately one million years and attributed to Homo erectus, was discovered in a mine in Sudan. These tools included various sizes of chisels and axes, and scientists believe this area might have been a workshop, as stone flakes produced during tool- making, some of which could also be used as cutting tools, were found preserved. The fact that Homo erectus was able to make more complex tools, hunt with more sophisticated weapons, and live in cooperative groups, possibly interacting with other Homo species, suggests that it had crossed a significant evolutionary threshold. According to Torrey, not only intelligence but also a certain level of self-awareness had begun to develop in this species. Homo erectus may have had some awareness of itself and others, particularly in terms of its relationships and cooperative efforts, although this awareness was not fully developed. However, Homo erectus was still unable to 'think inwardly' or reflect deeply on its own thoughts In transitioning from four legs to two, humans gained a height advantage, allowing them to view their surroundings, prey, and potential enemies from a higher vantage point compared to other species. This broader field of view enabled humans to monitor and exploit more extensive territories, which in turn brought changes to dietary habits and led to significant anatomical changes within the Homo genus. As their skeletons, skulls, and heads underwent morphological and functional changes, their digestive systems, respiratory tracts, birthing processes (such as carrying babies upright and delivering larger- headed infants), and cognitive abilities also evolved through these challenging development phases. The brain's growth and development expanded cognitive capacities, leading to more sophisticated 'thinking' and 'designing' abilities. This fostered greater mobility—longer legs, limbs, and increased running ability—to better dominate and benefit from the expanded territory. However, these physical and cranial changes brought their own challenges. While primate relatives with smaller heads functioned more comfortably on all fours, the Homo genus struggled with supporting and balancing their large brains and skulls, leading to frequent back and neck pain, a problem that persists today. Another challenge posed by a large brain is its energy demands. The brain of Homo sapiens makes up 2-3% of body weight but consumes 25% of the body’s energy at rest, while apes in this state only use 8% of their energy. The cost of a large brain for humans was spending more time searching for food, and experiencing muscle atrophy. Yuval Noah Harari, in Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, summarizes this phenomenon: 'Like a government reallocating funds from defense to education, humans transferred energy from their biceps to their neurons. It’s questionable whether this was a good survival strategy on the savanna. A chimpanzee would easily win a verbal debate against Homo sapiens, but it could also tear a human apart like a rag doll' (Harari, 2015, p. 24).« Childbirth is another human phenomenon that has transformed due to bipedalism. The greatest risk of this transformation has been borne by the female of the species. The growth of the skull and the flattening of the pelvis have made childbirth significantly more difficult. As a result, human babies are born underdeveloped compared to other species, meaning they are born prematurely and incomplete. This premature birth increases the chances of survival for both the mother and the baby. If human babies were born at the same developmental stage as their primate cousins, chimpanzees, the human baby's skull would never be able to pass through the birth canal. Therefore, natural selection has led to an evolutionary adaptation for human babies to be born earlier.  However, the skull and brain continue to develop after birth (the brain grows in size for up to seven years). In comparison to chimpanzees, whose cognitive development involves approximately 6 million neurons, human cognitive development continues until it contains about 86 billion neurons. This shows that the development that starts in the womb continues externally, nurtured by the 'family,' 'pack,' 'community,' and ultimately 'society' (Condemi & Savatier, 2020, pp. 40-41). The positioning of the skull on the neck and its mobility caused the thick nape seen in primates to become incompatible. As a result, finer, more delicate, smaller, and weaker muscles developed in this region. This transformation made the neck more functional and valuable, but also more vulnerable and prone to trauma. On the other hand, the loss of the body's need for front limbs to carry weight freed them, taking over functions such as grasping and tearing, which were previously handled by the jaw. In the meantime, changes in the balance of power, shifts in habitat and dominance over resources, and anatomical changes all led to transformations in dietary habits. The consumption of more animal-based food became easier as humans could obtain more energy with less effort (less chewing and easier digestion). This surplus of energy contributed to brain growth. Cooked meat is easier to chew and digest than raw meat. Less energy used for chewing meant that less time was spent on this process, leading to smaller molar surfaces. As molars shrank, the tongue could move more freely in the mouth, creating the necessary space for more effective sound production, thus facilitating the evolution of language. Language has been one of the greatest differences humans have developed compared to their primate cousins. Another factor contributing to the capacity for sound production was the lowering of the larynx as a result of bipedalism. Additionally, bipedalism enabled humans to balance on one leg, which allowed them to regulate their breathing and continue vocal communication while walking (Atasoy, 2021; Uysal, 2021) It is not known exactly when fire was domesticated, but based on findings, it is believed that Homo erectus was able to control fire. Homo heidelbergensis, which lived between 700,000 and 200,000 years ago in Europe, possibly China, and Eastern and Southern Africa, lived in the earliest period when it is definitively known that fire could be controlled. They used wooden spears, hand axes, and are known to have regularly hunted large animals, built shelters, and created simple dwellings from wood and rocks. They were also the first early humans to live in cold climates, and their short and stocky bodies are seen as an adaptation to retain heat (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022). This species is believed to be an ancestor of Homo sapiens. It is suggested that the species evolved into Homo sapiens after coming to Africa and interbreeding with the dominant species, and into Neanderthals in Europe (Condemi & Savatier, 2020, p. 74). Neanderthals are also known to have used and controlled fire, but scientists have long debated their ability to start fires. However, in 2018, a paper published in the journal Nature by Andrew Sorensen and his colleagues at the Netherlands' Leiden University and the French National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research revealed that Neanderthals living in France around 50,000 years ago regularly started fires by striking flint against hard minerals like iron sulfide to create sparks (Sorensen, Claud, & Soressi, 2018)  Fire, with its numerous benefits such as making chewing and digestion easier, killing microbes, and being a source of both fear and power, provided significant advantages to humans. With fire illuminating the dark, humans gained more time to remain active, which they used for creating tools and similar items. Fire also facilitated gathering communities together (as gathering around fire is still a tradition), providing warmth, sharing food, working, communicating, and even devising strategies together. Additionally, it allowed humans to signal each other using fire, which later became a part of social and religious rituals. As Yuval Noah Harari emphasizes, fire was one of the first and greatest factors that set humans apart from other animals (Harari, 2015, p. 28). Animals' strength is tied to their physical bodies and structures. While animals have instincts to harness natural forces like wind or water currents, they cannot control or recreate these forces. Humans, on the other hand, mastered the control of fire and, over time, learned to recreate it, gaining a tremendous power source. Fire, which once frightened and overwhelmed early humans, was domesticated. It became clear that controlling or recreating fire did not require any particular physical advantage; a single human could start a massive fire with just a spark, a burning piece of wood, or a flint. After stone tools, fire became another tool humans optimized to supplement their natural abilities, in what can be seen as one of the earliest cyborg-like modifications. Caring for babies together, gathering around fire, staying warm, eating, supporting one another, realizing the necessity of collaboration for survival due to individual vulnerabilities, hunting together, hiding, and attacking together — all these activities led humans toward forming communities. This in turn fostered a shared belief system, experiences, and ultimately the creation of a common culture Homo neanderthalensis; The Neanderthal is the species most commonly known as one of humanity's oldest and closest relatives. It is identified as the first early human fossil, which lived between 400,000 and 40,000 years ago, in a region stretching between Europe, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia. The first Neanderthal was discovered in Germany in 1856. Research has revealed that Neanderthals created and used various complex tools, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals, consumed plants for their healing properties, and produced symbolic and decorative objects (Hardy et al., 2012; Kırdök, 2021). Evidence shows that Neanderthals cared for the elderly and disabled members of their community. Additionally, there are indications that they deliberately buried their dead and sometimes adorned their graves with gifts, such as flowers (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022). Based on the information and findings regarding Neanderthals, it is evident that they possessed self-awareness and an awareness of others, allowing them to contemplate and make predictions about the actions of others. However, it is inferred that they lacked the ability for introspection and did not possess the capability to use "the past and present to plan for the future" (Torrey, 2018, p. 90).  Another important species in human history is Homo denisova, or the Denisovans. It is believed that they lived between 300,000 and 50,000 years ago in Siberia, Tibet, and East and Tropical Asia. The name Denisovan originates from the Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, where the discovery was made. They are the first ancient human species identified solely through genetic analysis rather than fossil classification. While it has been determined that Neanderthals also lived in Denisova Cave at certain intervals, it remains unclear whether they cohabited with Denisovans. The cave has yielded thousands of human artifacts, none of which have been conclusively linked to Denisovans. There has also been speculation about whether these artifacts belong to Neanderthals, as there is evidence suggesting they lived in the cave. It has even been suggested that these artifacts could belong to Homo sapiens, although no definitive Homo sapiens fossils have been found in the cave to date. This situation complicates the detailed characterization of the species' cultural traits, but scientists have concluded that Denisovans were relatively intelligent and shared similar lifestyles with contemporary humans. In 2010, scientists sequenced the Neanderthal genome and shortly thereafter succeeded in sequencing the Denisovan genome. This research revealed that many modern humans carry a certain proportion of Neanderthal genes, although the past and current functions of these genes remain unknown, appearing to be associated with both positive and negative human traits (Krause et al., 2010).  Genome studies and DNA analyses have shown that there was "interbreeding and racial mixing" among these three species—Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans—indicating inter-species relationships and mating. The species contributed genetic material to one another. Today, it is estimated that 1-4% of the DNA of living Europeans and Asians is inherited from Neanderthals. Denisovan genes continue to exist at 3-5% in the DNA of Southeast Asians, Malaysians, Tibetans, and Australian Aborigines. It is believed that Denisovans mated with modern humans (Homo sapiens), with evidence suggesting that these unions occurred quite recently (15,000 to 30,000 years ago) according to a detailed DNA analysis study of people living in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea published in 2019. If these dates are confirmed, it would indicate that Denisovans were the closest human species to have lived alongside Homo sapiens in recent times (Wei-Haas, 2019). One of the strongest pieces of evidence for inter-species mating is the genetic analysis conducted in 2018 on a bone fragment previously found in the Denisova Cave. This analysis confirmed the existence of an individual whose mother was a Neanderthal and father was a Denisovan, indicating that Neanderthals arrived in this region over 90,000 years ago (Warren, 2018). Denisovans had the ability to spread across a vast area through inter-species mating, travel, and migration. Research has identified this species as highly adaptable, possessing the ability to cross large water bodies, and having good communication and social interaction skills. A study published in 2011 in the journal Science indicated that the modern human immune system has been shaped by the influence of Denisovan genes (Abi-Rached et al., 2011). Additionally, a 2014 article published in the journal Nature revealed that Denisovans inherited the gene variant EPAS1, dubbed the "super athlete" gene, from Denisovans, which helps Sherpas living at high altitudes of 3,280 meters above sea level to breathe comfortably (Huerta-Sánchez et al., 2014). Homo sapiens, described as the ancestor of modern humans, is known to have evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago. It is thought that the closest ancestor, shared with Neanderthals, is Homo heidelbergensis【Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022】. Recent research has concluded that Homo sapiens did not evolve in just one area of Africa, as previously thought, but throughout the continent. Subsequently, due to demographic and economic reasons, they had to migrate out of Africa【Condemi & Savatier, 2020, p. 77】. Throughout the evolutionary process of humans and other primates, species have coexisted in different parts of the world; at times, some have interacted, mated, fought, and communicated. Sapiens coexisted and mated with both Neanderthals and Denisovans in the same territories during the same period【Wei-Haas, 2019】【Castellano et al., 2016】【Than, 2010】【 SciNews, 2022】. Homo sapiens, which has never been alone during its evolution, ultimately established its dominance as the only surviving Homo species. Other species, particularly Neanderthals—its closest relatives, possessing the most similar cognitive and behavioral traits—have gone extinct. The extinction of Neanderthals, which could not evolve as far as sapiens, has been the subject of many studies and theories regarding the reasons for sapiens' dominance. Yuval Harari notes in his book Sapiens that most researchers attribute sapiens' success to a revolution in cognitive abilities, the exact cause of which remains uncertain【Harari, 2015, pp. 36-37】. Condemi and Savatier, however, contest Harari's view. They assert that Homo sapiens is unique in its behavioral patterns, linking its evolutionary uniqueness to its social and cultural complexity【Condemi & Savatier, 2020, pp. 81-83】. Like other early Homo species, sapiens exhibited foraging behaviors and developed adaptive responses to the challenges of their environment. Prehistoric Homo sapiens created and used stone tools, producing a variety of specialized tools such as composite stone tools, fish hooks, spears, bows and arrows, slings, and sewing needles, which were smaller, more complex, and intricately crafted【Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022】. As time progressed, Homo sapiens also acquired the ability to produce its own food and transform its surroundings. They realized they could control the reproduction and growth of certain plants and animals, leading to the advent of agriculture. Thus, humans established a settled lifestyle with an increasingly growing settlement system and population【Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022】. Anatomically, Homo sapiens is noted to have more delicate features, a lighter skeleton, a more developed jaw, but smaller teeth, and a larger brain compared to other Homo species. (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, updated 2022) Homo sapiens has spread across the globe and has affected most ecosystems and global climate. Condemi and Savatier argue that the difference between Neanderthals and Sapiens is not cognitive, as similar technical skills (tool use, fire...) and symbolic languages (ornaments, cave paintings...) can be seen in both species. The distinction is seen in their living preferences and relationships with their environment. Neanderthals established a stable and balanced relationship with the ecosystems they occupied, whereas sapiens clearly underwent a process of demographic and economic growth and expansion. (Condemi & Savatier, 2020, pp. 81-83) The general conclusion is that Sapiens developed a unique combination of physical and behavioral traits, which many previous Homo species had, but never reached the same level. Among the findings related to Homo sapiens are cave paintings and figurines, which hold significant places in the history of world art, as well as perforated seashells (thought to be for decorative purposes) and clothing. Evidence shows that sapiens adorned themselves and wore layered garments. This indicates that sapiens thought about themselves and could anticipate what another sapiens thought—or would think about them, demonstrating self- awareness, awareness of others, and the ability to reflect on thoughts. (Torrey, 2018, p. 98) It is noted that the development of language evolved alongside this introspective self-awareness. Language facilitated communication, enabling humans to talk about their thoughts and share them, thus showing they would be more successful in passing down their traditions, culture, and genes, beyond fulfilling collective hunting, nutrition, and childcare needs. (Torrey, 2018, pp. 101-105) The development of the inner self also led to the interpretation and curiosity about natural phenomena, as well as fear of them, the creation of gods, and the perception and questioning of death, which transformed into rituals, religious quests, and creations that are described as art today. (Torrey, 2018, pp. 105-107, 111-127) Recent examinations and datings of findings have led to claims of discovering representations that suggest the existence of older examples of art. Subsequent developments and archaeological discoveries have shown that works that can be described as art pieces, cave art, and symbolism existed before Sapiens. All Homo species play a significant role in human evolution. With ongoing excavations and the discovery of new and previously hidden sites, remarkable discoveries are being made that reinforce, clarify, or dramatically alter previous knowledge about human history. One such discovery is the new hominin species Homo naledi, which was found in 2013. The discovery of Homo naledi and the recent detailed examination of the Dinaledi chamber, or burial chambers, have undermined much of the existing information. In studies led by paleontologist Lee Berger, fossils identified as belonging to the species Naledi were found in the Dinaledi Chamber within the Rising Star Cave System in South Africa in 2013 and 2014. Naledi, which has the second highest number of species examples found after Neanderthals, has yielded fifteen individuals and over 1,550 specimens. Additionally, 133 samples and three individuals (two adults and one adolescent) were found in nearby chambers, known as Lesedi. The dating of the Naledi fossils in 2017 established that the species lived between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago. They are estimated to have a brain size approximately one-third that of a human brain and an average height of about 1.44 meters. Their appearance is a blend of human and early hominin features. Berger’s statements suggest that the Homo naledi species may have coexisted with sapiens. The significance of the Naledi species for humanity is elaborated in the 2023 documentary "Unknowns: In the Bone Cave," directed by Mark Manucci. Key figures in the documentary include Lee Berger, anthropologist John Hawks, evolutionary anthropologist Agustin Fuentes, and lead excavation supervisor Keneiole Molopyane. The idea has been proposed that these species, which are thought to have lived during the same periods, exchanged knowledge, culture, beliefs, and techniques with one another. Consequently, with Molopyane's findings, the concepts that define what it means to be human have been called into question, demonstrating that sapiens—and thus humanity—is not as complex and unique as previously thought, since it has been observed that sapiens was not the first in many areas. https://arkeofili.com/afrikadaki-magarada-bulunan-homo-naledi-kimdi/ adresinden alındı.. One of the most significant discoveries regarding the Naledi species is that Berger and his team found evidence that these hominins buried their dead in a special area and with rituals. The chamber seen in the image above is known as the Dinaledi Chamber, where the dead were buried. Accessing this area requires navigating through an extremely narrow passage that even a fit person would struggle to get through. The Naledi's effort to carry their dead to this secluded location, along with evidence of fire being lit during the burial, demonstrates their awareness of the concept of death and the value they placed on their deceased. Berger presented findings to counter critics who argued that Naledi's small brain size precluded any intelligent behavior, such as burial practices. Burying their dead in a special and difficult-to-reach location clearly indicates a sign of intelligence. Agustin Fuentes notes that the existence of a species showing such respect and concern for their dead long before Homo sapiens raises questions about the meaning of being human. In the Dinaledi Chamber, the dead were not casually thrown from a height referred to in the image as "Dragon's Back," but rather, they were carefully brought down from that narrow space and buried in specially dug graves. A rocky grave was examined using a special scanning method, revealing a likely adolescent body buried with a primitive tool placed very close to the hand. Fuentes, interpreting this discovery, suggested that they were examining a corpse that seemed to say, "This is my tool," and expressed his curiosity about why there was a need to place a tool with a dead body if it was not intended to be used. This implicitly posed question indicates that they found evidence suggesting that Naledi believed in an afterlife. The Dinaledi Chamber is viewed not only as a potential temple but also as a bridge to the afterlife. The difficult, deep, dark, and underground burial ceremony may be likened to the Greek mythology's Hades, while the emergence of the deceased's relatives from the cave into the light after such a ceremony can be interpreted as a ritual embracing life. In a Zoom meeting with Lee Berger, anthropologist John Hawks, evolutionary anthropologist Agustin Fuentes, and chief excavation officer Keneiole Molopyane, Berger shared another discovery: engraved plus signs (#) found on a rock immediately adjacent to the graves. These drawings appear as lines that could have been made by a tool, much like a pencil, right above the burial site Naledi ve Neandertal Mağara Çizimleri, Kaynak Berger, L. R., Hawks, J., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Delezene, L. K.,... and Zipfel, B. (2015). Homo naledi, a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa. Elife, 4, e09560.  Berger compared these engravings with those attributed to Neanderthals and some from Homo sapiens. Anthropologist Hawks voiced a claim that everyone has in mind but hasn't articulated: in a sense, Naledi is the first hominin species to create art, and it did so with a tool made specifically for that purpose. (It is clear that Naledi did not have an artistic motivation in the contemporary sense of art.) Naledi, Neandertal ve Sapiens Mağara Çizimleri, Kaynak Berger, L. R., Hawks, J., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Delezene, L. K.,... and Zipfel, B. (2015). Homo naledi, a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa. Elife, 4, e09560. Next myths, magic, artificial life…