Once More on the Ratu Boko Mantra: Magic, Realpolitik, and Bauddha-Saiva Dynamics in Ancient Nusantara PDF

Chapter 13 Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’: Magic, Realpolitik, and Bauddha-Śaiva Dynamics in Ancient Nusantara a n dr e a acr i...

Chapter 13 Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’: Magic, Realpolitik, and Bauddha-Śaiva Dynamics in Ancient Nusantara a n dr e a acr i I n his groundbreaking article ‘A Buddhist of Wanua Tengah III recovered from Central Java, mantra recovered from the Ratu Boko plateau: as well as from the 16th-century Old Sundanese A preliminary study of its implications for historical chronicle Carita Parahyaṅan (Sundberg Śailendra-era Java’, Jefrey Sundberg (2003) high- 2011). Sundberg (2003) discovered instances of very lighted an important gold artefact recovered from similar mantras (i.e., takki hūṁ jaḥ, ṭakkijjaḥ the Ratu Boko hillock near Prambanan in Central huṁ)4 in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Sino-Japanese Java.1 he artefact, an inscribed gold foil consisting Tantric Buddhist texts, and pointed out that in the of two connected diamond-shaped leaves recalling Sanskrit Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṅgraha (STTS)—a a vajra, bears the Sanskrit mantra oṁ ṭakī hūṁ 7th-century mūlatantra consolidated over time jaḥ svāhā repeated on each of its four sides.2 A into the Yogatantra tradition (Weinberger 2003: unique, and intriguing, feature of the inscription 4)—the mantra occurs in the context of the Bud- is the engraving of the words panarabvan and kha- dhist Trailokyavijaya myth or the ‘Subjugation of nipas within an exaggerated circular bubble in the Maheśvara’ by the Bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi, while in two cases of the grapheme ī in the sequence ṭakī. Sino-Japanese sources it is associated with Aizen’s his feature led Sundberg to advance the hypothesis subjugation of Īśvara and Nārāyaṇa. In view of that the artefact, and the mantra(s) inscribed on it, these interesting facts, Sundberg concluded that was connected to King Rakai Panaraban (r. ad 784– the epigraphic document was Vajrayāna in nature, 803),3 who is known to us through the inscription thus opening the grounds ‘to ind expressions of these tantric convictions in the stone temples of 1. I wish to thank Rolf Giebel, Arlo Griiths, Roy Jordaan, Java’ (ibid.: 181); that it might have had an anti-Śaiva Iain Sinclair, and Jefrey Sundberg for having read and commented on various drats of this chapter. Any mistakes character (and purpose)—being a repudiation in are, of course, mine alone. I am particularly grateful to strong terms of the religion of Panaraban’s ances- Iain Sinclair who, besides providing me with references tor Sañjaya (ibid.: 183); and that it was devised by to relevant passages of Tantric Buddhist manuals, has Panaraban, in order to ‘link himself to the mantra kindly shared with me many e-texts and rare editions of or the cosmic being it points to’ (ibid.). In the Buddhist sources that otherwise would have remained inaccessible to me. conclusion to his essay, Sundberg anticipated that 2. Regrettably, the present whereabouts of the gold foil are the study of this mantra ‘has hopefully only just unknown; what remains is a hand-drawn facsimile made by Suhamir (Oudheidkundig Verslag 1950: 36), reproduced Wanua Tengah III, I must leave aside the discussion of his in Sundberg 2003: 165 and again here as Fig. 13.1. proposed identiication of this igure with the Śailendra 3. In fact the identiication of panarabvan with Rakai king Samaratuṅga, which goes beyond the scope of this Panaraban was already proposed by the late Indonesian contribution (for a critical appraisal of his hypothesis, see archaeologist Kusen (1994), whose work is acknowledged by Jordaan and Colless 2004: 58–59). Sundberg. While I am entirely persuaded by the phonetic 4. I consider the doubling of consonants in the versions of and orthographic arguments adduced by Sundberg (2003: the mantra attested in Sanskrit and Tibetan sources on the 176–77) in support of the identiication of the panarabvan one hand and Archipelagic sources on the other (e.g., ṭakki inscribed on the plate with the historical king Rakai Pana- vs ṭaki) a trivial matter, which relects minor orthographic raban known from Old Javanese inscriptions, most notably variation rather than linguistic variation. Acri mockup.indd 323 31/10/16 9:31 pm  324 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia Fig. 12.1: Drawing of the Ratu Boko gold foil by Soehamir. (Adapted from Oudheidkundig Verslag 1948 [1950: 36]) begun’ (ibid.), and invited scholars with the neces- hūṁ jaḥ is also attested in three short Old Java- sary philological skills to search for attestations of nese stone pillar inscriptions that previous schol- this mantra in textual sources from South, Central, ars, followed by Sundberg, read as paki hūṁ jaḥ; Southeast, and East Asia; to explore the meaning furthermore, he pinpointed a very similar mantric of the obscure Old Javanese (?) word khanipas; and sequence attested on a fourth Old Javanese inscrip- to pay archaeological attention to the Ratu Boko tion, whose whereabouts and context are presently Buddhist site. unknown, as well as on a lead-bronze inscription Sundberg’s appeal was promptly taken up from Borobudur, which contains a dhāraṇī devoted by Roy Jordaan and Brian Colless, who in 2004 to a wrathful form of Vajrapāṇi (Griiths 2014a). published the short study ‘he Ratu Boko mantra Building on the work of my predecessors, I will and the Śailendras’. Jordaan and Colless (2004: 58) enter this fascinating discussion by identifying two wrestled with Sundberg’s proposed identiication other attestations—in a slightly modiied form— of Panaraban as Samaratuṅga, the Śailendra ruler of the ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ mantra: one in a Sanskrit under whose auspices the 792 Buddhist inscription Buddhist hymn (stuti) from Bali, and the other in of Abhayagirivihāra was composed, as well as his the Gaṇapatitattva, a Sanskrit-Old Javanese tutur adherence to Buddhism. hey assume that he was text of Śaiva persuasion. he latter—admittedly in fact a Śaiva and that, given the association of the unusual—attestation of a Buddhist mantra in a mantra with the Trailokyavijaya myth, its ‘intention Śaiva text named ater Gaṇapati will give me the could have been the mantrical subjugation and opportunity to elaborate on the links between the conversion of Panaraban’ (ibid.: 61).5 mantra and the igure of the elephant-headed god. Recently, Arlo Griiths (2014a) has returned to Further, given the commonality of themes—that the ‘Ratu Boko mantra’ in section 7 (pp. 177–80) of is, Tantric magic—shared by the section of the his ine study entitled ‘Written Traces of the Bud- tutur attesting the ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ mantra and the dhist Past: Mantras and Dhāraṇ̄s in Indonesian Ratu Boko gold foil, I will try to throw new light on the context and the function of the latter. By Inscriptions’. Griiths, crediting Sundberg with analysing relevant textual evidence from Java and having done much to throw light on this unique the Indian Subcontinent, I will then discuss the gold artefact, has drawn attention to attestations of religious and socio-political scenarios opened up precise matches to the mantric sequence oṁ ṭa(k) by it.6 he documents, I will argue, bear witness kī/i hūṁ jaḥ in the Guhyasamājatantra (14.22) to dynamics of interaction and appropriation of and in the Tibetan version of the pre-9th century mantric technology across the Śaiva and Bauddha Sarvavajrodaya, a ritual manual by ̄nandagarbha divide in Central Java, Bali, and much of the pre- based on the system of the STTS. Having fulilled modern Indic cosmopolitan world. Sundberg’s desideratum to ind exact attestations of the mantra in early Tantric Buddhist sources, 6. Given the uncertainty about the exact spot where the Griiths pointed out that the same mantra ṭaki artefact was found, and other basic archaeological facts about the Ratu Boko complex, I will leave aside such ques- 5. A succinct ‘rejoinder’ to the critiques and alternative tions as whether the gold foil was part of a foundation hypotheses advanced by Jordaan and Colless may be found deposit related to the construction of the great western in Sundberg 2006: 112–13, n. 25; for his 2014 comments entrance-gate of the complex, or rather was meant to ac- amending his 2006 rebuttal, see Sundberg, this volume, company the consecration of the statue of a tutelary deity, Annex to Chapter 14. as speculated by Sundberg. Acri mockup.indd 324 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 325 the mantra jaḥ ṭaḥ kiḥ huṁ phaṭ he syllable jaḥ is to be known as the moun- in the pañcakāṇḍastava tain, and the syllable taḥ as the ocean;8 and the syllable kiḥ as the ire, and the syllable he Pañcakāṇḍastava was edited and translated by huṁ9 as the air. (1) Goudriaan and Hooykaas (1971: 241–43) as stuti no. And the syllable phaṭ is space; destruction of 375, ‘Hymn to the Five Constituents’.7 he authors all hindrances; all these elements are always called this an ‘interesting hymn … nearly con- that…10 (2) ined to Buddhist sources’, which they found in its I will perform the worship of the gods … which entirety on at least twelve Buddhist manuscripts means destruction of all stains; [the worship- on daily ritual and death ritual, while its irst two per] obtains the condition of a long life and will ślokas—precisely those attesting our mantra—they obtain enjoyment. (3) found also in three Śaiva sources (mss. 1590/I3a, he refuge given by the Sun; destruction of 5160/33b, 2335). According to their Śaiva informant, all disease; a stream of water, blessing to the this hymn is not used by the Śaiva priests (ibid.: world; a puriier destroying all evil. (4) 242). Below I reproduce Goudriaan and Hooykaas’ edition, critical apparatus (converted from their Sprinkling formula: footnotes 1–7), and English translation of this stuti and its ‘sprinkling formula’. oṁ oṁ …; Destruction of all disease; towards destruction jaḥ-kāraḥ parvato jñeyaḥ of all evil; taḥ-kāro jaladhis tathā / destruction of all stains; towards destruction kiḥ-kāraś ca mahātejo of all sorrow, honour, hail. huṁ-kāro vāyur eva ca // 1 phaṭ-kāraś ca mahākāśaḥ Goudriaan and Hooykaas (1971: 242) comment- sarvavighnavināśanam / ed that ‘the language is good-looking, although etāni sarvabhūtāni the second part of [śloka] 2 is somewhat puzzling. tad eva satataṁ punaḥ // 2 Perhaps the sentence has been broken of’. Further, devapūjāṁ kariṣye naḥ they noted the similarity between ślokas 1 and 2 sarvakleśavināśanam / and those found in the edited Gaṇapatitattva as dīrghāyuṣyam avāpnoti ślokas 54 and 55, but conirmed Sudarshana Devi’s bhuktilābham avāpnuyāt // 3 (1958: 117) view that ‘the bījas mentioned in these ādityasya parāyaṇam verses do not seem to be found elsewhere’. In a sarvarogavināśanam / rather speculative attempt to make sense of them, toyavahaṁ jagatpuṇyam pavitraṁ pāpasakalam // 4 they proposed that they originally constituted the mantra Jā-na-kī Sprinkling formula (PVTg18; PPKA29): Huṁ Phaṭ. Jānak̄, (= S̄tā) is indeed oten wor- oṁ oṁ Śrī Śrī ambhavana shipped as the Great Mother of existence and Sarvarogavināśanam, sarvapāpavināśāya might on this function very well be considered Sarvakleśavināśanaṁ, sarvaduḥkhavināśāya, as a personiication of the Five Great Elements Namaḥ svāhā which constitute Prakṛti (Nature). 2b sarvavighna° ] 7× vighna; 7× roga 2c etāni sarvabhū- tāni ] thus two mss.; others etānām sarvabhūtānām 2d 8. Goudriaan and Hooykaas (1971: 242–43, nn. 1 and 2) tad eva ] 8× sadeva 2d punaḥ ] 6× udaḥ; others pudaḥ 3c pointed out that here ‘mountain’ and ‘ocean’ represent avāpnoti ] 5× apaśyataḥ 3d bhuktilābham āvāpnuyāt ] ive ‘earth’ and ‘water’ respectively, corresponding to pṛthivī mss. saṁgrāme vijaȳ bhavet 4d °sakalam ] mss. sakatam and āpaḥ of the Gaṇapatitattva; see below. 9. Huṁ here could be restored to hūṁ. 7. An alternative, more faithful, translation may be ‘he 10. he reading sadeva attested on 8 mss. could be sadaiva ive-constituents mantra’ (where ‘constituents’ stands for (i.e., sadā + eva), ‘at all times/eternally’, which is however ‘portions’ or ‘divisions’ rather than ‘constitutive elements’). redundant in a verse-quarter featuring satatam and punar. Acri mockup.indd 325 31/10/16 9:31 pm  326 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia In view of the attestation of the parallel mantra As Hooykaas (1962, especially pp. 314–18) ṭa(k)kī/i jaḥ hūṁ in Buddhist texts, this hypoth- painstakingly showed, the printed edition of the esis is no longer tenable. Furthermore, apart from Gaṇapatitattva (ed. Sudarshana Devi Singhal 1958), the intriguing occurrence of the originally Bud- produced on the basis of a single palm-leaf manu- dhist mantra found in ślokas 1–2 in three Śaiva script, turned out to be just one version among the ritual sources, it should be noted that both ślokas many that were circulating on Bali under diferent 3–4 of the stuti and the sprinkling formula present titles. he edited version corresponds to Īśvara thematic analogies with the ślokas and Old Javanese Uvāca Gaṇapati Matakvan (‘Īśvara Spoke, Gaṇapati commentary of relevant portions of the Gaṇapa- Asked’, Gedong Kirtya manuscript K2411), which titattva, which I will present and discuss in the appears to be the most ‘mature’ one as it betrays a next section. complex process of compilation. It was carved out of a core of sixty ślokas (four of which are lacking the mantra jaḥ ṭaḥ kiḥ hūṁ phaṭ in in Sudarshana Devi’s edition), supplemented with extra material related to Gaṇapati at its beginning gaṇapatitattva 59–60 (54–55) and end, namely: an opening maṅgala verse to he Gaṇapatitattva is a Śaiva scripture belonging Gaṇapati followed by an Old Javanese prose portion to the Javano-Balinese tutur genre;11 arranged containing ten questions-and-answers between as a dialogue between the Lord Śiva and his son Gaṇapati and Śiva; a concluding series of ślokas Gaṇapati, it consists of sixty Sanskrit ślokas provid- (59–61) with appended Old Javanese paragraphs; a ed with Old Javanese prose glosses, introduced by prose paṅlukatan gaṇapati or ‘exorcism (by means) an extensive Old Javanese prose section. he text, of Gaṇapati’; and three eulogizing ślokas (62–64) which has come down to us only through palm- and short Sanskrit and Old Javanese invocations leaf manuscripts from Bali, is of uncertain date. (65) to the same god.13 Judging from the number of While the prose section appended to ślokas 51–53 Balinese manuscripts preserving various redactions reveals various Balinisms and (Middle-)Javanisms, of this text it may be argued that the Gaṇapatitattva thereby suggesting a late date of composition (16th enjoyed certain popularity on the island. century onwards), its earliest textual stratum, and he section that primarily concerns us here con- in particular its ślokas, may be several centuries sists of the two ślokas 59–60 (54–55 in the printed older, and perhaps even date back to the Central edition) plus an Old Javanese prose appendix of Javanese period.12 three paragraphs. he Sanskrit-Old Javanese dyad follows an (apparently unrelated) long prose section, 11. On this genre of Śaiva literature, see Acri 2006. stretching over nineteen paragraphs, appended to 12. A small number of verses of the Gaṇapatitattva/ ślokas 57–59 (51–53 in the printed edition);14 this Tutur Kamokṣan/Jñānasiddhānta have parallels in pre-9th century Sanskrit Siddhāntatantras from the Indian Sub- continent (Acri 2006), while verses 57–59 have a parallel 13. he ‘core text’ out of which further versions of the in a Sanskrit stuti from Bali (Praṇavajñāna, no. 890.1–3, Gaṇapatitattva were carved is the Tutur Kamokṣan, which Goudriaan and Hooykaas 1971: 524); compare also verses in its turn forms a part (with some sections rearranged in 1–2 and 3cd of the Pañcakāṇḍa with Gaṇapatitattva 54–55 diferent order) of the Tutur Ādhyātmika (an expanded and 56cd. Recent research has shown that many Balinese version of the latter text was edited as Jñānasiddhānta: stutis have preserved material stemming from the Central see Soebadio 1971: 4–7). An ‘intermediate’ version of the Javanese period: see, e.g., Kandahjaya (2009) and Grii- Gaṇapatitattva is the Tatva Gaṇapati (romanized tran- ths (2014b) on the Navakampa (no. 510, Goudriaan and scription by Ketut Sudarsana, PusDok, 1993), which inclu- Hooykaas 1971: 314–15), and Acri and Jordaan (2012) on des the ten questions-and-answers but lacks the maṅgala, stutis that, together with the Śaiva Sanskrit-Old Javanese and the concluding material ater śloka 61. tutur Bhuvanasaṅkṣepa (also handed down uniquely on 14. he three ślokas and long prose section are also found Bali), arguably informed the masterplan of 9th-century in the Tutur Kamokṣan, but not in Tutur Ādhyātmika/ Candi Śiva at Loro Jonggrang. See also stuti no. 450 (Gou- Jñānasiddhānta—the three ślokas alone, i.e. without the driaan and Hooykaas 1971: 274–77), attesting a fragment long Old Javanese prose appendage, being attested in from the pre-8th century Vīṇāśikhatantra (cf. Acri 2006: Jñānasiddhānta 3.1–3, 17.4, and 18.12; cf. also stuti 809.1–3 118–19). (Praṇavajñāna). he relation, admittedly supericial, that Acri mockup.indd 326 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 327 is followed by an (arguably related) śloka on the GaṇL; phatkārakāśasaṁyuktaḥ TGaṇ, GaṇUd; phan- kare kasa saṁyuktaḥ PDok 60b mahāpātakanāśāya ] mṛtyuñjaya mantra (61), the paṅlukatan gaṇapati, em. GaṇEd (°śā° unmetrical); mahāpaṭakanaśāya and the concluding Sanskrit and Old Javanese in- GaṇL; mahāpaṭakanasaya GaṇUd; mahāpatakanasaya vocations. he two ślokas and the irst paragraph TGaṇ, PDok 60c pañcāṅgaṁ japayed vidvān ] conj.; pañcāṇḍaṁ japed yo vidvān GaṇEd (em.); pañcāṇḍhaṁ of the Old Javanese commentary run as follows:15 japayet vidvan GaṇUd; pañcaṇḍhaṁ japayaid vidvān GaṇL; pañcaṇdhaṁ japayet vidvaṁ TGaṇ; pañcāndhaṁ jaḥkāre pṛthivī jñeyaḥ japayet vidvān PDok 60d avāpnuyāt] corr. GaṇEd; ava- ṭaḥkāre āpa-saṁsthitaḥ / snuyat GaṇL, GaṇUd, TGaṇ, PDok kiḥkāraś ca mahātejaḥ hūṁkāre bāyu-saṁnyaset // 59 In the jaḥ the earth is known [to reside]; in the phaṭkārākāśa-saṁyuktaḥ ṭaḥ is placed the water. he kiḥ is full of ire; mahāpātakanāśāya / [one] should place the wind in the hūṁ. (59) pañcāṅgaṁ japayed vidvān he phaṭ is ixed in the space. For the annihi- śivalokam avāpnuyāt // 60 lation of great sins, the wise should mutter the [mantra of] Five Units, so that he may reach ndya ta ya / jah / ṭah / kih / hūṁ / phaṭ //16 iti the world of Śiva. (60) saṅ hyaṅ pañcāṅga17 / japākna śivadhyāna / mahāpātaka vināśa denya // 0 // Jaḥ, ṭaḥ, kiḥ, hūṁ, phaṭ: hus is the sacred [mantra] of Five Units. he visualization of 59a jaḥkāre ] GaṇEd, TGaṇ, GaṇUd; jaḥkare PDok; ja- Śiva should be muttered. Great sins are annihi- ḥkarai GaṇL; pṛthv̄ ] corr.; prathivi TGaṇ, GaṇUd; pra- vivi PDok; praviviṁ GaṇL; jñeyaḥ ] PDok, GaṇL, TGaṇ, lated by means of it. GaṇUd (m. aḥ for f. ā); jñeyā GaṇEd; 59b ṭaḥkāre ] corr. (°e ā° for °a ā°); taḥkāra GaṇEd; taḥkārai GaṇL; thaḥkare he two ślokas, composed in a typically ‘Tantric PDok (as 59c); ṭāḥkāre GaṇUn.; āpa-saṁsthitaḥ ] corr. register’ of Sanskrit, attest virtually the same re- (nom. sing. for f. plur., °a-s° for °ḥ s° or °s s°, m.c.); conigured version of the mantric sequence ṭaki āpaḥ saṁsthitāḥ GaṇEd; apa saṁstitaḥ GaṇL; hapa saṁsthitaḥ PDok; apa saṁsthitaḥ TGaṇ, GaṇUd 59c jaḥ hūṁ found in the Pañcakāṇḍastava. In both kiḥkāraś ca ] corr.; kiḥkaraś ca, GaṇL, TGaṇ, GaṇUd, the Sanskrit verses and the Old Javanese gloss, the PDok (as 59b); kiḥkāre GaṇEd (em.); mahātejaḥ ] corr.; sequence ṭaki is divided into its constituents ṭa mahatejaḥ TGaṇ, GaṇUd; mahāteja GaṇEd (GaṇL); hūṁkāre ] em.; hūṁkare TGaṇ, GaṇUd; uṁkāre and ki, each of which is provided with a visarga.18 GaṇEd; uṁkarai GaṇL; uṅkare PDok; 59d bāyu ] em. he mantra phaṭ occurs in place of the svāhā (m. sing. acc. ending °ṁ dropped m.c.); vāyuṁ GaṇEd; attested in the Ratu Boko gold foil.19 he ivefold bayu GaṇL, GaṇUd, PDok; saṁnyaset ] GaṇEd; sanya- set PDok; śanyaṣet GaṇL; śanyaset GaṇUd; śūnyayet mantric sequence jaḥ ṭaḥ kiḥ hūṁ phaṭ is called TGaṇ 60a phaṭkārākāśa-saṁyuktaḥ] em. (°rā° for °ra pañcāṅga (my emendation from pañcāṇḍa) in both ā° [°e + ā° ] (double sandhi), and °a-s° for °aḥ s°, m.c.); the śloka and the Old Javanese gloss, meaning the phaṭkārākāśasaṁyukto GaṇEd; phaṭkarakāśasaṁyuktaḥ ‘(Mantra of) Five Units’; but one manuscript attests the reading pañcakāṇḍa in the gloss, which mirrors this part bears to the two ślokas following thereupon seems to be limited to the statement, found in the end of para- 18. he visarga in the syllables jaḥ ṭaḥ kiḥ might have been graph 19, that the obtainment of release (kapadamokṣan) part of the irst person singular nominative declension, but corresponds to śivapada, which may be linked to śloka 61d, appears to have been understood by the compiler of the which speaks about the obtainment of śivaloka. śloka as an integral part of the single mantric units (for 15. he passage has been collated from ive diferent wit- he wrote jaḥkāra and not jakāra, etc.). his form has been nesses, namely the edited text and the single manuscript it retained in the Old Javanese commentary. stems from (= Īśvara Uvāca Gaṇapati Matakvan, K2411 ≈ 19. A similar form of the mantra is attested in a book LOr 11461), and three versions of the Gaṇapatitattva proper of yantra etc. drawn up by Newar artisans in the Ming (for the sigla used in the apparatus, see the primary sources dynasty, where it is given as oṁ ṭakkirāja hūṁ phaṭ section at the end of this chapter). (i.e., the signature mantra of ̣akki). In fact, what may be 16. jaḥ / ṭaḥ / kiḥ / hūṁ / phat] em.; / jah / ṭah / kih / uṁ / the earliest attestations of the mantra ṭṭakki huṁ phaṭ phaṭ GaṇEd; jaḥ / ṭaḥ / kiḥ / hūm / phaṭ GaṇL (?); jah / tah is in the STTS (ed. 200, lines 12–14), where it is connected / kih / uṁ / phat PDok; jaḥ / ṭaḥ / kiḥ / hūṁ / phat GaṇUd with magical ‘killing with a glance’ (vajraṛṣṭayā nirīkṣed 17. pañcāṅga ] em.; pañcaṇdha GaṇUd, pañcandha PDok; … maraṇam āpnuyāt). I thank Iain Sinclair for these refer- pañcakāṇḍa GaṇEd, pañcakāṇdha GanL. ences (email dated 30 August 2014; cf. Sinclair 2013). Acri mockup.indd 327 31/10/16 9:31 pm  328 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia Table 13.1: Correspondences between mantric units and visualizations in OJ commentary, GNP 60–61 phaṭ space Paramaśivadhyāna inal release (mokṣa) hūṁ wind Rudradhyāna destruction of enemies (ripusaṁhāra) kiḥ ire Mahādevadhyāna success in the world (kasvasthan iṅ rāt)* ṭaḥ water Śaṅkaradhyāna accomplishment of all actions (sakārya siddha)** jaḥ earth Īśvaradhyāna afection of somebody (kasihana deniṅ janma) * Here I follow GaṇL (kasvastan) and GaṇUd (kaśvastan), against GaṇEd (kasvastyan). ** Here I follow PDok and GaṇUd against GaṇEd (sakāryanta siddha) and GaṇL (sakāryyantā). the title of the Balinese stuti.20 In the ślokas these faculties. his is hierarchically ordered from the units are linked to the ive elementals, whereas in highest to the lowest attainment, as corresponding the Old Javanese gloss they are declared to constitu- to the highest and lowest mainifestations of Śiva. te the visualization of Śiva (śivadhyāna). A notable Although there is no explicit indication in the Old feature, attested in both the Gaṇapatitattva and the Javanese commentary that the ive forms of visual- Balinese stuti, is the transformation of the original ization following thereupon are connected to each sequence ṭaki jaḥ into jaḥ taḥ kiḥ, which may one of the ive mantric units detailed in the śloka, represent an instance of purposeful ‘inversion’.21 the redactor might have implied thus, in order to he continuation of the irst paragraph of the obtain the list of correspondences illustrated in Old Javanese gloss seems to be an addition, and Table 13.1.23 yet is apparently related to ślokas 60–61. So is the he progression is from the foremost visuali- second paragraph, as well as the four ślokas and zation of Paramaśiva, connected with the subtlest eulogy that bring the text to its end. he irst pa- element of space or ether (ākāśa),24 the mantra phaṭ, ragraph elaborates on śivadhyāna, prescribing the muttering (japa) of aṁ-aḥ sixteen times, the fruit of which is purity (nirmala).22 he remaining part of 23. he redactions of the text corresponding to the the irst paragraph describes a ivefold visualization ms. titled Tatva Gaṇapati (TGaṇ ≈ LOr 14982) add yan sadāśivadhyāna dīrghāyuṣa phalanya (spelling standard- technique (dhyāna) aimed at obtaining speciic ized) between Śivadhyāna and Rudradhyāna, against the redactions corresponding to the edited version of the 20. Aṅga is a common technical term for the constituents Gaṇapatitattva and ms. titled Īśvara Uvāca Gaṇapati of a mantra, whereas aṇḍa (‘egg’) does not make sense here. Matakvan. his sentence may be an addition as it disrupts he reading pañcakāṇḍaṁ supported by GaṇL may represent the ivefold arrangement and the correspondence with the a ‘contamination’, in the light of the attestation of the form in elements of the mantra in the śloka. As far as the ivefold several mss. of the Balinese stuti Pañcakāṇḍa, and perhaps hierarchical arrangement is concerned, it is tempting to also because of semantic overlap (kāṇḍa = ‘part, unit, portion, detect a spatial arrangement as well, where the four main division, constituent’; compare khaṇḍa ‘piece, part, fragment, points of the compass plus the centre are linked to the portion, section’, and skandha ‘part, division, section’; pañ- ive deities presiding over/associated with the respective caskandha is a well-attested unit in Buddhist literature, e.g. direction. If one links the names of the manifestations of in the Guhyasamāja exegesis, where it represents the the ive Śiva mentioned in the passage to the corresponding deities constituent elements of being). he causative form japayed known from the navasaṅa arrangement that has survived attested in all mss. may be the outcome of the insertion of down to modern Bali, the resulting arrangement, starting one extra syllable as required by the metre, or may represent from the east and proceeding in counterclockwise direc- a corruption of japed yo vidvān). tion, would be as follows: Īśvara in the east (like Indra, he 21. Compare the mantra ‘ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ jaḥ hūṁ kiṭa rides an elephant in Balinese iconography), Śaṅkara in the h(ū)[ṁ] ṭaki (dhuṁ) kiṭa dhu(ṁ)…’ engraved on a lead- northwest, Mahādeva in the west, Rudra in the southwest, bronze foil from Borobudur, where the sequences jaḥ hūṁ and Paramaśiva in the centre. kiṭa and kiṭa dhu(ṁ) may represent inversions of ṭaki 24. his is in harmony with the widespread homologiza- hūṁ jaḥ and ṭaki dhu(ṁ) respectively; Griiths (2014b: tion of the highest form of godhead (or paramount meta- 25) notes the inversion with respect to the element kiṭa. physical entity, such as the Self, or even a yogic attainment, 22. Perhaps here the Sanskrit (and Old Javanese) nirmala such as tarka) to space (ākāśa)—and, at the same time, should be understood as being equivalent to the Sanskrit ‘emptiness’ (śūnya[tā])—attested in several texts of both abstract noun nirmalatva (‘purity’). Śaiva and Buddhist persuasion from the Indonesian Archi- Acri mockup.indd 328 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 329 and the attainment of liberation, to the lowest vis- states that it is not to be used or revealed indiscri- ualization of Īśvara, connected with the coarsest minately, and that its aim is to keep death far away element earth (pṛthvī), the mantra jaḥ, and the (hayva cāvuh, madoh maraṇa donira tәlas).28 he securement of the afection of somebody.25 word tәlas (‘inished’, ‘the end’) suggests that the he paragraph ends with a characterization of original text ended here.29 he ‘exorcism (by means the mantras aṁ-aḥ—the former is ‘the seed-syl- of) Gaṇapati’ that follows—attested only in the lable of the Soul’ (ātmabījākṣara), the latter ‘the edited Gaṇapatitattva (= Īśvara Uvāca Gaṇapati seed of emptiness’ (śūnyatābīja); together, they Matakvan)—starts with an Old Javanese passage are called ‘the great union’ (mahāsaṁyoga). hey containing instructions for a pūjā to invoke the should be used with restraint. he section ends intervention of the elephant-headed god against with a caption iti saṅ hyaṅ mahājapa ‘[here ends] the damage caused by ield-mice.30 he three ślokas, the sacred Great Muttering [formula]’, which is a constituting the mantra to be employed in the pūjā, paramount secret (paramarahasya). eulogize Gaṇapati as the son of Śiva who destroys he second paragraph links the Sanskrit word all poisons (sarvaviṣavināśana) and calamities khaḍgarāvaṇa (see below) to the mantric sequence (roga), and bestows success (siddhārthada). he oṁ ha ka śa ma la va ra yaṁ uṁ,26 which should text ends with a short auspicious formula in honour be visualized (kahiḍәpanya) as Ardhanār̄śvara of Gaṇapati and Sarasvat̄, by which one obtains (a half-male, half-female form of Śiva). he ten long life and prosperity.31 syllables should be placed in the body following a clockwise direction (pradakṣiṇakrama); this results in the obtainment of impenetrabilty from any kind 28. his is the correct reading, as shown by Hooykaas (1962: 315), versus the hayva cāvuh, adomraṇa denira tәlas of weapons (tan kataman iṅ sarvvasañjāta) and of the edition (however, the variant denira, ‘by means being free from all hindrances (luput iṅ sarvvavi- of it’, is permissible and attested in some manuscripts). ghna). hen the concentration (anuṣṭhāna) of the I do not agree with Hooykaas’ translation of maraṇa mṛtyuñjaya should be performed, as follows: oṁ (māraṇa) as ‘ield-mice’, but take it in its most evident in the fontanelle, aṁ in the mouth, kaṁ in the meaning of ‘death, killing’, which is consonant with the throat, aḥ in the cavity of the earth, aṁ from the content of the śloka devoted to the Mṛtyuñjaya mantra. It is evident that Hooykaas was misled by the contents of navel down to the feet; these go together with the the paṅlukatan gaṇapati that follows thereupon, which ten-syllable mantra (daśākṣaramantra) from the deals with ‘agricultural exorcism’; it is entirely possible crest to the feet, and also with the mantra maṁ that the compiler of the ‘mature’ redaction of the Gaṇa- (i.e., jūṁ?) saḥ vauṣaṭ mtyuñjayāya namaḥ patitattva took maraṇa to mean ‘ield-mice’, but the same svāhā vaṣat (see below, n. 43). reasoning cannot be applied retrospectively to the Old Śloka 61 elaborates on the mṛtyuñjayamantra, Javanese gloss of śloka 61. granting long life (dīrghāyuṣa) and victory in battle 29. he ‘intermediate’ version of the Gaṇapatitattva from ms. PDok, as well as the Tutur Kamokṣan, end here indeed. (saṅgramavijaya).27 he Old Javanese gloss simply 30. Hooykaas (1962: 315–16) described this as ‘an addi- tional note for peasants … only a rustic and picturesque pelago (see, e.g., Gonda 1971; Acri 2011a: 347, 589); also note accretion to our philosophical/metaphysical text’. he that a Chinese Buddhist text attributed to Śubhākarasiṁha practitioner is prompted to ‘make a circuit (scilicet: of his links Mahāvairocana—the highest Tathāgata—with space rice-ield), using an ‘‘ivory bamboo’’ (scilicet: adorned with) and the centre (see Damais 1969: 85–86). a drawing of Gaṇapati, with a disc [cakra] in His let hand 25. his amounts to a form of vaśīkaraṇa: cf. below. and a cudgel [gadā] in His right’ (ibid.: 315). his kind 26. This mantra, which still plays an important role in the of ‘agricultural magic’ does not represent an ‘indigenous’ theology and yogic praxis of present-day Balinese Hindu- Balinese invention, but has clear parallels in South Asia. In ism, is indeed a variant of the old, in origin Saiddhāntika, current Indian harvest festivals, and also in folk literature, Śaiva mantra nāvātman, most oten represented by the Gaṇapati is worshipped as a ‘harvest hero’, and especially sequence rhrkṣmlvyūṁ (see Padoux 2011: 58–60). as a destroyer of mice (he is oten portrayed as riding a rat, 27. Compare Pañcakāṇḍastava 3cd, 5 manuscripts of his vehicle): see Michael 1983. which read: dīrghāyuṣyam avāpnoti, saṁgrāme vijayī 31. Oṁ ghmuṁ gaṇapataye namaḥ / oṁ sarasvatyai bhavet, and Gaṇapatitattva 61cd (ed. 56cd): dīrghāyuṣam namaḥ / oṁ siddhir astu / tad astu / astu // oṁ dīrghāyuṣaṁ avāpnoti saṅgramavijayī bhavet. sukhaśriyā / darśanāt tava vṛddhiśriyā //. Acri mockup.indd 329 31/10/16 9:31 pm  330 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia a kind of magic? the ratu boko gold hodadhi,33 which comprises appeasement (śānti), foil as a yantra subjugation (vaśya, vaśīkaraṇa), immobilization (stambha, stambhana), enmity (dveṣa, vidveṣa), he mantra jaḥ-ṭaḥ-kiḥ-hūṁ-phaṭ is apparently eradication (uccāṭana), and liquidation (māraṇa); associated in the Gaṇapatitattva with puriication, but other sources also attest lists of four or fewer averting of calamity, and bestowal of supernatural elements,34 while sources listing nine elements—the goals. Both the ślokas and the Old Javanese gloss aforementioned six plus delusion (mohana), attrac- declare that the use of the ive-unit mantra is ‘for tion (ākarṣaṇa),35 and acquisition (puṣṭi)—are also the annihilation of great sins’ (mahāpātakanāśa), known. In fact ākarṣaṇa (i.e., bringing a person which results in the attainment of śivaloka. he Old under the practitioner’s control), even if it is not Javanese gloss implies that the murmuring of the included in the ‘standard’ list of six acts, is ‘one of ive units amounts to śivadhyāna, which is connect- the best known and most widely performed acts of ed to the mantra aṁ aḥ (the so-called rva bhineda magic’ (Goudriaan 1978: 294), and as such it plays formula that is widespread in Javano-Balinese lore). an important role in many of the documents dis- A similar stress on puriication, averting of calam- cussed here. As I have mentioned above, the ṭaki ity and sins, and bestowal of supernatural goals is jaḥ hūṁ mantra has been linked to a context of found in ślokas 61–64 (56–59 ed.) on mṛtyuñjaya mantric subjugation; and since the version of the and Gaṇapati-related mantras, as well as in the mantra attested on the Ratu Boko gold foil and Pañcakāṇḍastava.32 the version in the Gaṇapatitattva seem to have hree of the goals listed in the Old Javanese gloss been used in a context of magic, an investigation to Gaṇapatitattva 59–60, namely the destruction of selected key sources related to magical practices of enemies (aptly homologized with Rudra, the in Buddhist and Śaiva contexts may throw light on destructive form of Śiva), worldly success, and the contexts and purposes of the mantra. attracting the afection of somebody, apparently Let us turn to Chapter 25 of the Mantramahoda- correspond to the operations of māraṇa, puṣṭi and dhi. In verses 30–32ab Mah̄dhara declares that in vaśīkaraṇa respectively, which we ind in the ‘six the six rites the seed syllables of a yantra—a ‘coer- acts/practices’ or ‘six rites of magic’ (ṣaṭkarmāṇi). cive diagram’ (Brunner 2003: 164–65)36—consist of Sanskrit literature, from the Atharvaveda to Tantric texts of Śaiva, Buddhist, and even Jaina and Vaiṣṇa- 33. Being a systematic manual compiled on the basis of va persuasion, deines ritual practices connected several earlier authoritative texts, the Mantramahodadhi with protection, paciication, exorcism, incanta- remains a valuable source on the ṣaṭkarmāṇi in spite of tion, and the acquisition or cultivation of prosper- its relatively late date of composition. A translation and ity, according to diferent systematizations. he analysis of Chapter 25 of this text, which I will draw from standard, ‘mature’ list as deined in many Tantric in my discussion, may be found in Bühnemann 2000. works is the one adopted by the early 16th-century 34. In fact Vedic sources already subdivide all karman (in the sense of ritual) into three kinds, namely śānti (paciica- Śaiva author Mah̄dhara in his manual Mantrama- tion), puṣṭi (welfare or acquisition), and abhicāra (harming others) (Goudriaan 1978: 252). 35. In some other lists, ākarṣaṇa—which is relevant to 32. Compare the stuti’s sarvavighnavināśanam, sarva- our discussion—replaces śānti, especially in (con)texts kleśavināśanam, bhuktilābham, sarvarogavināśanam, where the rite assumes a more cruel appearance (Goudriaan pavitraṁ pāpasakalam, and sarvapāpavināśāya with 1978: 260–61). Gaṇapatitattva’s sarvaviṣavināśanam, parāṇi rogāṇi mūrch- 36. Cf. Sanderson’s (2004: 290) deinition of yantra as ‘a hantam, siddhārthadam (62–64 = ed. 57–59), and mahāpā- Mantra-inscribed diagram written in various colours and takanāśāya/mahāpātakavināśa (ślokas and commentary with various inks on cloth, birchbark, the hides of various 59–60 = ed. 54–55). In particular, note that Gaṇapatitattva animals and the like, wrapped up and then employed in 61cd (ed. 56cd) is the same as Pañcakāṇḍastava 3cd (see various ways (by being worn as an amulet, by being buried my n. 27 above); the whole śloka 3 of the latter source is in a cremation ground, and so on) for purposes such as also attested in the Balinese ritual text Pūjā Kṣatriya warding of ills, harming an enemy, or forcing a person (ms. PKTb, as stanza 3 of the Śaiva stuti no. 13): cf. below, to submit to the user’s will’. Iain Sinclair (email dated 30 n. 43 and 46. December 2014) pointed out to me that many Nepalese Acri mockup.indd 330 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 331 the letters of the moon, water, earth, ether, wind, cantly associated with vaśīkaraṇa and ākarṣaṇa, and ire (Bühnemann 2000: 457). One may wonder resonates with the encasing of the personal raka whether the correlation between the ive syllables title ‘Panaraban’ (and ‘Khanipas’) on the Ratu Boko jaḥ-ṭaḥ-kiḥ-ḥu(/ū)ṁ-phaṭ and the ive elements gold foil within the circular ̄ of the mantra ṭakī. It in the Pañcakāṇḍastava, as also between the last is therefore not too far-fetched to assume, as was two series and the ive manifestations of Śiva in the done by Sundberg (2003: 177), that the inscription Gaṇapatitattva, relect an analogous systematization, of Panaraban’s personal title within a grapheme as well as the widespread idea that, by connecting was intended to inix it ‘as a vital component of (on a subtle level) syllables or mantras to elements, the sacred mantra’. Whatever the actual intended the latter are puriied. Correlations between ive procedure might have been, the practices described mantras, the ive elements, and ive Tathāgatas, are in the Sanskrit documents presented above would oten found in Tantric Buddhist maṇḍalas (see e.g., seem to support the link with practices of adduc- Kandahjaya 2009, table 4, and my n. 23 above), so tion and subjugation hypothesized by Sundberg as this idea need not be distinctively Śaiva. well as Jordaan and Colless, and lead us to regard he Mantramahodadhi (verses 17cd–23ab, see the Ratu Boko gold foil as a yantra of coercive magic. Bühnemann 2000: 449 and table 26.5) describes Exploring further the hypothesis that the six arrangements for connecting the mantra to be Ratu Boko artefact indeed might have constituted uttered in each rite with the letters of the name of a yantra, I turn again to the Mantramahodadhi, the victim of the magical act; such methods may which in verses 23cd–26ab (Bühnemann 2000: include the insertion of the victim’s name at the end, 455–56, and table 26) describes the symbolic shapes or the insertion of letters between its syllables, and of the elements that have to be drawn in such so on. Padoux (2011: 96–97), describing in detail yantras: for subjugation this is a triangle endowed analogous practices on the basis of Netratantra Ch. with svastikas, for immobilization it is a square 18 and Kṣemarāja’s commentary, characterizes the connected with thunderbolts (vajra), and for enmity technique called saṁpuṭa as the symbolic ‘encasing’ it is a circle. Other sources give diferent combi- of a mantra ‘(or any part thereof, or any element nations, namely vajra and liquidation, square and with which it is associated) inside a space or casket, paciication, circle and paciication, subjugation, covered as with a lid or within two covers’. He adds eradication, or acquisition (see Goudriaan 1978: that in his commentary on Netratantra 6.18 Kṣema- 292). An early Śaiva Tantra, the Brahmayāma- rāja describes a written procedure: mantram ādau la, declares that the practitioner ‘should draw a likhet;37 similarly, in Agnipurāṇa Ch. 138, ‘where square and write [the target’s] name in its centre’ saṃpuṭa is prescribed for the magical action of (5.78cd–79ab, Kiss 2014: 212). We may connect these vaśīkaraṇa and ākarṣaṇa, it is described as the ideas to the shape of the Ratu Boko artefact and placing of the mantra around the sādhya—above, see in the vaguely vajra-shaped double quadrangle under and to its right and let: a spatial pattern, not a counterpart of the ‘square connected with thun- an oral operation’.38 his practice, which is signii- derbolts’ associated with subjugation; on the other Buddhist mantra manuscripts attest a placeholder for the grasta (‘swallowed or eclipsed, but also surrounded’), which name of the ‘target’, usually ‘Devadatta’, and that while is in fact what Agnipurāṇa Ch. 138 calls saṁpuṭīkaraṇa; Buddhists classically used terms such as rakṣācakra, con- ākrānta (‘seized or invaded’—applying to the name of the temporary Newar Vajrācāryas talk about yantra (jantra). victim, which Kṣemarāja characterizes as ‘when the mantra On examples of yantras found in early Śaiva Tantras, see is placed so as to surround the name which is in the centre’; Kiss 2014. Padoux sees this as a variant of what is called grasta by 37. Sanderson (2004: 290) draws attention to Kṣemarā- the Netratantra and saṁpuṭīkaraṇa by the Agnipurāṇa); ja’s deinition (ad Netratantra 20.59c) of a yantracakram garbhastha: this corresponds to the Agnipurāṇa’s deini- as ‘a series of Mantras written in a particular spatial ar- tion of saṁpuṭa, except that Kṣemarāja on Netratantra rangement … yantracakraṁ viśiṣṭasaṃniveśalikhito man- ‘mentions the four directions of space instead of the four trasamūhaḥ’. sides of the written mantra. It is also the reversal of what 38. Compare also Padoux’s (2011: 97–98) description of is deined as grasta. Like the AgP’s saṁpuṭa, this can be techniques that appear to be related to saṁpuṭa, namely: done only in writing’. Acri mockup.indd 331 31/10/16 9:31 pm  332 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia hand, the engraving of the raka title panarabvan that enclose bījamantras to form efective mantric (and, perhaps, the personal name khanipas) within sequences, and therefore need not necessarily be the circle of two of the the ̄ signs may correspond connected with a particular function.42 to ‘enmity’, as per Mah̄dhara, or again subjuga- Let us turn to the Gaṇapatitattva again. he tion, according to an alternative list. Although no mention of Khaḍgarāvaṇa, the ten syllables, and deinitive conclusion can be drawn, it seems safe the mṛtyuñjaya mantra43 in the second paragraph to assume that the choice of these shapes was not of the Old Javanese commentary to ślokas 59–60 entirely arbitrary but relected systematizations ofers a hint to the fact that the mantra jaḥ-ṭaḥ- described in manuals of yantra-magic. kiḥ-hūṁ-phaṭ was meant to be employed—as, it Further, Mah̄dhara associates six closing words appears, also in the Pañcakāṇḍa—in a context of of mantras with the respective acts, namely namaḥ Tantric magic. Khaḍgarāvaṇa is the chief deity of and paciication, svāhā and subjugation, vaṣaṭ the Bhūtatantras of the exorcistic Paścimasrotas di- and immobilization, vauṣaṭ and enmity, hūṁ and vision of the Mantramārga (Sanderson 2003–4: 374), eradication, phaṭ and liquidation (verses 32cd– a Rudra possessing the demonic identity of both 33ab, Bühnemann 2000: 457). According to this Rāvaṇa and Bhairava, who presides over evil beings categorization, the closing svāhā in the ‘Ratu Boko and is invoked in his capacity as lord of the bhūtas version’ of the mantra would neatly correspond to (bhūtanātha) to chase them away.44 he mṛtyuñ- subjugation;39 on the other hand, the closing phaṭ jaya (‘Conqueror of Death’) is both a mantra and in the series attested in the Pañcakāṇḍastava and a god—the Old Javanese commentary indeed calls Gaṇapatitattva may be linked to liquidation.40 But, it a deva—i.e., a mantric representation of the form also in this case, diferent systematizations exist, of Śiva called Mṛtyuñjaya, Mṛtyujit or Amṛteśa (see and it is therefore diicult to establish with certain- White 2012; Padoux 2011: 95); besides granting, as ty which one was used as a prototype by the authors the śloka and the Old Javanese commentary puts of these documents;41 we may just conclude that it, impenetrability from all weapons, long life, and although the details difer widely, the principles victory in battle,45 it also ensures ‘freedom from underlying the application were probably the same. I should also like to point out that such formulas as namaḥ, svāhā and phaṭ, together with the be- 42. Griiths (2014a: 177, n. 125) notes that the absence of svāhā in the sequence [oṁ] ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ attested in ginning oṁ, constitute very general mantric units some Sanskrit, Tibetan and Old Javanese documents ‘can be considered a trivial diference’. 39. he Hevajratantra (II, ix.21) describes a mantra of 43. he mantra oṁ maṁ saḥ in the sequence oṁ maṁ attraction (ākarṣaṇa)—which is in fact related to subju- saḥ vauṣaṭ / mtyuñjayāya namaḥ svāhā vaṣaṭ should gation (vaśīkaraṇa) in that text—made up by the syllables probably be emended to oṁ juṁ saḥ on the basis of the oṁ, hūṁ, and the closing svāhā (in connection with the reading oṁ mjuṅ saḥ in GaṇUd and in the prose part of names of celestial nymphs to be attracted): see Nihom 1995: Stuti 453, Mṛtyuñjaya (which is found, interestingly, only 524–25. On the other hand, Sundberg (2003: 178) envisaged in the Pūjā Kṣatriya: cf. n. 46). Oṁ jūṁ saḥ is indeed an element of ‘auspiciousness’ in it, for svāhā is admittedly the base-mantra (mūlamantra) of Amṛteśvara/Mṛtyujit/ an exclamation of blessing used in benign contexts, be they Mṛtyuñjaya (see Sanderson 2004: 260; Padoux 2011: 95). In mantric, ritual, or otherwise. Contrast my remark about Kriyākālaguṇottara 9.45, the sequence oṁ jūṁ saḥ svāhā the sequence oṁ … svāhā below, as well as my nn. 42, 44. is invoked as the armour (kavaca) of the mūlamantra of 40. his would be in harmony with the goal of inal li- Khaḍgarāvaṇa (see Slouber 2007: 73). beration (mokṣa): besides noting the mention of māraṇa, I 44. Chapter 9 of the Kriyākālaguṇottara (verses 39–44, refer to Goudriaan’s (1978: 74) deinition of phaṭ as a word ed. Slouber 2007) relates that by chanting the heart mantra, ‘loaded with magic’, a ‘sonic explosion’ used for piercing. oṁ bhūtapati svāhā, one is able to subjugate (vaśam) and 41. he Vaiṣṇava Pāñcarātra Jayākhyasaṁhitā prescribes drive of spirits, subjugate even the gods, and perform the svāhā for homa, svadhā for ancestor worship, phaṭ for six acts by thought alone. Khaḍgarāvaṇa is also mentioned destructive activities, hūṁ for creating hatred, and namaḥ in the Balinese ritual for the preparation of consecrated for release (Goudriaan 1978: 74); other combinations are water (Hooykaas 1974: 54). found in diferent texts, namely phaṭ with vidveṣana, uc- 45. Besides in the Netratantra (see Padoux 2011: 95–96), cāṭana and māraṇa; svāhā with śānti, ākarṣaṇa and puṣṭi; the mṛtyuñjaya is featured in the context of ṣaṭkarmāṇi hūṁ with vidveṣana and māraṇa (ibid.: 75, 288). in the Sanskrit Siddhayogeśvarīmata, a text of the Kaula Acri mockup.indd 332 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 333 hindrances’ (luput iṅ sarvvavighna), which may the ‘ratu boko mantra’ and be linked to another function of this all-powerful gaṇapati: on taming demons… mantra, namely controlling, routing, and destroy- ing demons ‘with total eicacy’ (White 2012: 145). Several elements in both the Pañcakāṇḍa hymn and In fact the mṛtyuñjaya mantric lore has a royal the closing section of the Gaṇapatitattva conjure dimension to it, converging with the exorcistic up a context of magic and exorcism, i.e. dispelling aspect.46 his is apparent, for instance, in Chapter 19 or pacifying ‘demonic agents, hostile to well-being’ of the Netratantra—a pre-9th century Kashmirian (Linrothe 1999: 24), or ‘beings that cause injury’ text devoted to the cult of Mṛtyujit/Amṛteśa. As (hiṁsaka; see White 2012: 148). he crescendo of pointed out by Sanderson (2004: 246), this chapter apotropaic magic culminates in the ‘agricultural ‘details procedures for countering possession by exorcism’ of the paṅlukatan gaṇapati, which at various classes of being. Here the Guru’s role is some point was inserted into the textual transmis- portrayed almost exclusively as that of priest to sion. he insertion of this material as a conclusion the royal family’.47 to a text dominated by the igure of Gaṇapati is appropriate, for Gaṇapati, beside being the remover of obstacles (vighnāntakṛt) par excellence, is also stream of Śaivism. It considers the objectives of the six the ‘Lord (pati) of Demonic Hosts (gaṇa)’. As White rites as siddhis, divided into the categories of sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa (Törzsök 2000: 138–39). he sāttvika (2012: 149) puts it, such beings as yakṣas, rākṣasas, include, e.g., well-being (puṣṭi), expiation or paciication grahas, vināyakas, and so forth (śānti), conquering death (mṛtyuñjaya), and inal release can only be controlled by placating the mas- (mokṣa); the rājasa include, e.g., subjugating people to one’s will (vaśya) and attracting people (ākarṣaṇa); the ters of their respective hosts: that is, one of the tāmasa include, e.g., murder (māraṇa) and annihilation Seven Mothers, or gods like Bhairava, Gaṇapa- (jambhana)—compare the analogous goals of inal release, ti, V̄rabhadra, or Hanumān. hese multiple destruction of enemies, success in the world, and attracting Spirit Lords (bhūteśvaras, bhūtanāthas)—ge- the afection of somebody in the irst paragraph of the Old neric terms already attested in the ̄yurvedic Javanese commentary to ślokas 59–60, and long life and literature … and that continue to be employed victory in battle in śloka 61. throughout modern-day South Asia—constitut- 46. his royal dimension is also suggested by the fact ed the original pantheons of the ‘Bhūta Tantras’. that the half-śloka dīrghāyuṣam … saṅgrāmavijāyī bhavet attested in (some manuscripts of) the apotropaic Pañ- White (2012: 150) notes that the Netratantra cakāṇḍa 3cd and in the mṛtyuñjaya-focused śloka 61cd of itself, and texts of later Tantric traditions, came the Gaṇapatitattva has a parallel in the Pūjā Kṣatriya, a to subsume the bhūtanāthas beneath a principal ritual compilation with Vaiṣṇava overtones that apparently deity (e.g., Amṛteśa), and relegated them to contains materials geared towards the protection of royal committers (see Goudriaan and Hooykaas 1971: 281). the maṇḍala’s dark fringe … where the bhūta- 47. Sanderson (2004) has made a number of points that nāthas, now reduced to the status of guardians are directly relevant to the themes I am treating here. When at the gates, were mobilised to wall out the discussing the nineteenth chapter of the Netratantra in demonic horde that would have liked noth- connection with the rites performed by Śaiva and Buddhist ing better than to break through and devour royal chaplains for the protection of the kingdoms of their everyone in sight. patrons, he (2004: 233) notes that the ‘protective, thera- peutic, and aggressive rites for the beneit of the monarch he role of ‘guardian of the gate’ its the proile and the kingdom’ performed by rājagurus were grounded in the Tantras of the Śaiva Mantramārga. On the basis of of Gaṇapati, who is invoked as remover of obstacles Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa 3.1.10, Sanderson (ibid.: 239) describes prior to undertaking any activity, and portrayed at ‘(1) rituals to ward of dangers and ills of every kind from the king and his kingdom (śāntikaṃ karma), some of them simple rites to protect the king’s person to be performed at occasional rituals (nityaṃ karma and naimittikaṃ karma) various times every day, others much more elaborate cere- required of the king, (5) reparatory rites (prāyaścittīyaṃ monies to be performed periodically, (2) rituals to restore karma), and (6) postmortuary rites (aurdhvadehikaṃ his health and vigour (pauṣṭikaṃ karma), (3) rituals to karma)’. See my discussion of the Khmer materials pre- harm his enemies (ābhicārikaṃ karma), (4) the regular and sented by Sanderson below, p. 346. Acri mockup.indd 333 31/10/16 9:31 pm  334 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia the boundaries of Hindu and Buddhist temples. It trouble, he should immerse himself in [the de- is therefore not surprising that the closing section ity] Vajrahūṁkāra and adduct them with the of the Gaṇapatitattva mentions the mantra jaḥ ̣akkirāja; should also adduct them with the ṭaḥ kiḥ hūṁ phaṭ side by side with a series of Vajra-goads etc.; should bind the [seal of] Va- jrahūṁkāra; and should step on the eigy of Bhūtanāthas: Khaḍgarāvaṇa, Mṛtyuñjaya (or Mṛ- the obstacle with his let foot. Ater the practice tyujit/Amrteśabhairava), and Gaṇapati, for all these of [self-]expansion with hūṁ vaṁ hūṁ etc., he deities (and the mantras they personify) play a role should stand in pratyālīḍha stance… (trans. in dispelling hindrances and malevolent inluences. Griiths 2014a: 178) he dictum luput iṅ sarvvavighna (‘free from all hindrances’), speciically attributed by the To Griiths, ‘it seems that ṭakkirājenākṛṣya can Old Javanese commentary to ślokas 59–60 to the be interpreted as ‘‘having adducted by reciting the mṛtyuñjaya mantra, exactly corresponds to the mantra named ̣akkirāja’’, and that the intended outcome of the familiar opening benedictory mantra is the one that concerns us here’. In fact formula oṁ avighnam astu, ‘let there be no hin- the Sarvavajrodaya seems to break up the discrete drances’. his formula occurs at the beginning of constituents of a longer mantra. By mentioning, Javanese and Balinese manuscripts, and notably besides ̣akkirāja, ‘also the actions of adduction etc. also, as pointed out by Griiths (2014a: 178), in by means of the vajra-goad etc.’ (vajrāṅkuśādibhir Old Javanese inscriptions from the 9th century apy ākarṣaṇādikaṁ kṛtvā), as well as mentioning onwards. One of these—the Guluṅ Guluṅ inscrip- the binding of Vajrahūṁkāra, the text is appar- tion of Śaka 851—starts with oṁ avighnam astu ently referring to the fourfold sequence of actions, gaṇapataye namaḥ (Oṁ, let there be no obstacles! instruments, deities, and mantras hinted at in Homage to Gaṇapati!), thereby making the con- the sequence vajrāṅkuśādibhir ākṛṣya praveśya nection with Gaṇapati—the god who removes ob- baddhvā vaśīkṛtya ‘having adducted, drawn in, stacles—explicit. Griiths (2014a: 177–78) points bound, brought under control’ in section 55. hose 49 out that three brief inscriptions on stone boundary actions correspond to those detailed in a passage markers from Central Java substitute this common of the Trailokyavijayamahāmaṇḍala section of opening with the formula ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ, which the STTS. Snellgrove (1987: 222–23), pointing to obviously served the purpose of removing obstacles. a passage describing a fourfold process by which Interestingly, two out of three of these inscriptions ‘all the Great beings, the Buddhas and the others, seem to have been recovered from seemingly Śaiva are summoned, drawn in, bound, so entering his contexts, and both date back to the second half of power’, notes that the 9th century.48 the four door guardians represent the four stag- Griiths corroborates the association of the es of introducing the divinities into the maṇḍa- mantra ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ with removal of obstacles la, which are efected by the mantra Jaḥ Hūṁ on the one hand, and with ākarṣaṇa on the other, Vaṁ Hoḥ! Vajrāṅkuśa (Vajra-Hook) summons by citing an important parallel from the Tantric them; Vajrapāśa (Vajra-Noose) draws them in; Buddhist text Sarvavajrodaya, section 56: Vajrasphoṭa (Vajra-Fetter) binds them and Va- jrāveśa (Vajra-Penetration) alias Vajraghaṇṭā He who wishes to efect complete freedom (Vajra-Bell) completes the pervasion of the from obstacles should cover them (i.e. the ei- maṇḍala by wisdom…. his fourfold function gies of the directional deities who might cause of the door guardians fully explains their names, trouble, pinned down in section 55) with mud. which might otherwise appear quite arbitrary. If in this condition (evam) they [still] make A similar arrangement, with minor variants, is 48. he three short inscriptions are: a cylindrical stone found in the Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatantra, in the carved in the Śaiva cave-shrine of Abang, dated 872 (Stut- section where the master introduces his pupil into terheim 1932: 293; Damais 1955: 29–30); an (undated) stone the maṇḍala (ed. Skorupski, p. 103 and 290), in the post from the Śaiva Candi Bongkol (Stutterheim 1932: 294); a stone post, mentioning a (Buddhist?) vihāra, dated 874 (Stutterheim 19З2: 296; Damais 1955: 236). 49. Cf. also sections 13 and 40. Acri mockup.indd 334 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 335 Vajraśekhara (one of the explanatory Tantras of the operations they imply, and as such they are included STTS), and several other Esoteric Buddhist texts.50 in the sets of attributes of many wrathful (krodha) he set of correspondences (from below upwards) Buddhist deities, such as (Caṇḍa)Vajrapāṇi/Trai- may be schematized as follows: lokyavijaya, Yamāntaka, Hevajra, etc., whose func- tion is to tame demonic forms of Śiva.51 he obvious hoḥ North Vajraghaṇṭā/ vajra-bell/ to penetrate/ implication is that in the Sarvavajrodaya passage Vajrāveśa vajra-pene- draw within the practitioner is imagined to embody the deity: tration one’s power he is explicitly invited to identify himself with, or vaṁ West Vajraśṛṅkhala/ vajra-fetter/ to bind connect to, Vajrahūṁkāra (vajrahūṁkārayogaṁ Vajrasphoṭa vajra-chain kṛtvā), perform the four actions with the four at- hūṁ South Vajrapāśa vajra- to draw tributes, bind his ‘seal’ or mudrā (vajrahūṁkāraṁ noose jaḥ East Vajrāṅkuśa vajra-goad to adduct baddhvā), and assume the pratyālīḍha pose.52 (2) ‘̣akkirāja’ denotes the mantra ṭakki, and Having noted that the set of names and mantric at the same time a wrathful deity of Esoteric Bud- acts found in Sarvavajrodaya 55–56 correspond to dhism linked to Trailokyavijaya, whose function those connected to the male gate-guardians of the is to eliminate disasters and subdue demons and Vajradhātumaṇḍala of the STTS and other Buddhist ghosts; his attributes are the hook and the noose. sources, I should like to make the following points: Similarly, a deity called Vajrarāja, inhabiting the (1) he four guardians are personiications of Vajradhātumaṇḍala and associated with Akṣobhya, their hand-attributes, namely the hook, noose, represents the unit jaḥ and the aṅkuśa (as such it chain, and bell, and of the activities and mantric is also attested in the Candi Gumpung gold foil: oṁ vajrarāja jaḥ). 50. On the STTS (194.4–14, ed. Lokesh Chandra) and Vajraśekhara (49b6/8.17), see Nihom 1998a: 248 and 253, 51. See Griiths (2014b) on the Borobudur inscribed foil notes 16–17 (STTS: vajrāṅkuśa + ākarṣa + hūṁ jjah; va- attesting a hṛdaya invoking Caṇḍavajrapāṇi, where that jrapāśa +praveśa + huṁ hūṁ; vajrasphoṭa + bandha + huṁ wrathful deity is characterized as bearing a sword, club, axe, vaṁ; vajrāveśa + āveśa + hum aḥ; VŚ: aṅkuśa + ākarṣa + snare, cudgel (vajra) and laming ire, and putting his let hūṁ jaḥ; vajrapāśa + praveśa + hūṁ hūṁ; vajrasphoṭa + and right foot respectively on the breasts of Pārvat̄ and the bandha + hūṁ baṁ; vajrāveśa + āveśa + hūṁ phaṭ ho). locks of Paśupati (Śiva). Griiths (2014a: 178) notes that in Nihom (ibid.: 248) notes that the bījas for Vajrāṅkuśa (jaḥ) Guhyasamājatantra 14.22 the mantra oṁ ṭakki hūṁ jaḥ and Vajrapāśa (hūṁ) correspond to those given in the is explicitly called sarvatathāgataṭakkirājamahākrodha; mantras inscribed on the gold foils recovered from Candi the Tattvasaṅgraha and Vajraśekhara characterize the four Gumpung in Sumatra, which he regards as relecting a weapons associated to the guardians of the maṇḍala with form of the Garbhadhātumaṇḍala; I cannot however agree the epithet mahākrodha. he STTS relates that Vajrapāṇi with his statement that ‘the bījas for Vajrasphoṭa, oṃ in the issued forth from the hearts of all the assembled Tathāgatas, Candi Gumpung evidence and vaṃ, or baṃ, in these two gathering together to create the body of Mahāvajrakrodha; tantras, are diferent and can not be reconciled’, for o is a then Vairocana uttered the mantra oṁ ṭakki jjaḥ, which common spelling variant of va in documents from ancient is the disciplinary aṅkuśa of all the Tathāgatas (Davidson Indonesia (therefore oṁ = vaṁ = baṁ); on the other hand, 1991: 200). the Candi Gumpung text has oṁ vajramuṣṭi baṁ. he 52. Cf. Griiths 2014a: 178, n. 130. Goudriaan (1978: 217) item relecting Vajrāveśa is absent. Sādhanamālā no. 251 quotes a verse of the Sādhanamālā (71, p. 144) declaring that, lists the sequence jaḥ (ānīya, adduction), hūṁ (praveśa, when performing subjugation, a practitioner should master penetration), vaṁ (bandhana, binding), hoḥ (toṣaṇa, attributes such as ‘vajra, disc, trident, arrow, hammer, satisfaction); no. 97 (samayamaṇḍala) gives the feminine noose, elephant hook, ointment, paste to be smeared on names of goddesses (e.g., vajrāṅkuśī, -pāśī, -sphoṭā, -ghaṇṭā, the feet, and painted spot on the forehead’; he argues that associated with the activities of ākarṣa and the syllable the implication from this and similar passages is that jaḥ, praveśa and huṁ, bandha and vaṁ, vaśīkaraṇa and the practitioner should meditate on himself as bearing hoḥ (Goudriaan 1978: 271). An analogous account of fem- one or more of these attributes. An instance, found in a ininized deities is found in the Tibetan translation of the Dunhuang Tibetan manuscript, of ritual puriication of Herukasādhana of Huṅkāravajra, f. 204r5–7 (see Sanderson the practitioner and his imaginative transformation of 2009: 153, n. 349). See also Sinclair, this volume, p. 50; Sno- himself into the wrathful Buddha ̣akkirāja is described dgrass 1988: 629–33; and ig. 1 in Sharma 2011: 211. by Dalton (2011: 87). Acri mockup.indd 335 31/10/16 9:31 pm  336 Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia (3) he ‘extended’ mantric sequence given by a tendency to consider both goad and snare as Sarvavajrodaya 56 could be ṭakki jaḥ hūṁ vaṁ characteristic of attraction, which constitutes hoḥ.53 he text is not the only one to add the unit a ‘relection of the tendency to make attraction ṭakki (ṭakkirāja) to the other four: signiicantly a facultative introductory stage to subjugation’ enough, a similar sequence is attested in the fourth (Goudriaan 1978: 317). As Sundberg (2003: 173) Old Javanese stone inscription (9th century) men- notes, the basic idea of the mantra ṭakki (j)jaḥ, tioned by Griiths (2014a: 179), bearing twice the as found in the STTS, sequence ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ jaḥ hūṁ vaṁ hoḥ—an is that it is the mantra of a ‘hook’, ‘goad’ or a extended variant of the ṭakki jaḥ hūṁ mantra.54 ‘prod’ for summoning, for compulsion, for con- (4) he mantras ṭaki (̣akkirāja) and jaḥ vocation, the utterance of which has compelled (Vajrāṅkuśa) in the Sarvavajrodaya are both as- Mahādeva to Sumeru. Iyanaga (1985: 669, note sociated with attraction (ākarṣaṇa, goad),55 while 47) notes that the Japanese commentary pro- hūṁ is associated with drawing to oneself (praveśa, vides some control over the meaning of the snare)—which ultimately corresponds to a form of Sanskrit mantra, which could also be consid- vaśīkaraṇa.56 hus, the sequence ṭakki jaḥ hūṁ ered as ākarṣaṇa (magic to draw to oneself) or implies both attraction (ākarṣaṇa) and drawing to by vaśīkarana (magic to draw someone to your oneself (vaśīkaraṇa).57 In fact the sources display will). Davidson (1991: 200) ofers ‘dragged’ as a term suitable to connote what happened to the gods ater Vairocana intoned the mantra. 53. his is given in the devatāyoga section of Kuladatta’s At the same time Sundberg (2003: 173) refers Kriyāsasaṅgraha (ed. Inui, Part 2): oṁ ṭakki hūṁ jaḥ / iti paṭhan trir vajram ullālayet / oṁ ṭakki jaḥ hūṁ vaṁ hoḥ to Snellgrove’s (1987: 222–23, quoted above) more // hṛdy utkarṣaṇam (I thank Iain Sinclair for pointing out articulated reading of the relevant passage of the this reference in an email dated 30 August 2014). STTS, which ‘serves very well to diferentiate the 54. his reading is reconstituted by Griiths on the basis use of the aṅkuśa from other Tantric implements’. of Damais’ transcription paki hūṁ jaḥ jaḥ hūṁ vaho he four actions of attracting, drawing to oneself, (2x); the original artefact is regrettably no longer available, snaring and ‘penetrating’ are those narrated in the and the context and function of the inscription remain main episode in the Trailokyavijaya cycle of the obscure. Griiths (2014a: 179) traces this sequence to a virtually identical one in a section on the consecration taming of Maheśvara, the lord of demonic hosts. of the Tantric master in the Kriyāsaṅgrahapañjikā (6.2.9), In fact taming or paciication (śānti) involves a namely oṁ ṭakki jaḥ hūṁ vaṁ hoḥ. more elaborate procedure than just the mantric 55. What Sundberg (2003: 173) calls ‘the hṛdaya of abduction/attraction ([ṭakki] jaḥ) and binding aṅkuśa used in the text as both the elephant-goad means (hūṁ) of the victim, for it also implies mantric over- of summoning the gods to Sumeru’ is actually (oṁ) ṭakki powering (= vaṁ) and resurrection (= hoḥ), ater jaḥ and not hūṁ ṭakki jaḥ. His claim that this is also the personal hṛdaya or quintessence of Vajrapāṇi is in- which ‘conversion’ occurs. In view of that fact, one correct, for in the STTS and related Buddhist literature may connect the mantric units vaṁ with fettering the personal mantra of Vajrapāṇi—and of his alter-egos or immobilization (bandhana or stambhana, chain), Vajrasattva, Vajradhara, Vajrahūṁkāra, and Trailok- and hoḥ with ‘penetration’ or ‘possession’ (āveśa, yavijaya—is hūṁ (see Linrothe 1999: 156). One may also bell). he latter may be regarded as a violent act, as argue that the syllable jaḥ alone is the element that efects penetration implies ‘stabbing’ (with bell, perhaps summoning. iguratively indicating a ‘mantric penetration’ via 56. Mantramahodadhi 25.26f links the snare-seal (pāśa- mudrā) with vaśīkaraṇa (Goudriaan 1978: 289). the medium of sound).58 57. See, e.g., Guhyasamāja 14.27–30, where ākarṣaṇa is carried out by means of both vajrāṅkuśa and vajrapāśa; 58. Perhaps because according to Sanskritic ontology see Nihom 1995: 525 on the identiication of ākarṣaṇa and sound pervades (i.e., ‘penetrates’) space (ākāśa)—compare vaśīkaraṇa in Esoteric Buddhist manuals. An illuminating the association of phaṭ with ākāśa in the Gaṇapatitat- discussion on the relationship between the attributes (and tva and mahākāśa in the Pañcakāṇḍa. Also note that especially the hook and snare) of Esoteric Buddhist deities the word kīlayet (‘he should pierce’ [with a kīla/kīlaya]) and the magical acts of ākarṣaṇa and vaśīkaraṇa may be appears ater the sequence vajrāṅkuśādibhir ākṛṣya found in Goudriaan 1978: 316–17. praveśya baddhvā vaśīkṛtya in Sarvavajrodaya 55. he Acri mockup.indd 336 31/10/16 9:31 pm  Once More on the ‘Ratu Boko Mantra’ 337 (5) he invocation of these mantra-deities who also resides, as the latter, in the northern sector during the preliminary stage of the practice for the of the maṇḍala.60 In connection with point (5) purpose of removing obstacles may correspond above, I wonder whether the use of the mantra to the invocation of Gaṇapati as gate-guardian jaḥ ṭaḥ kiḥ hūṁ phaṭ in the Gaṇapatitattva and remover of obstacles at the beginning of any and the Old Javanese inscriptions relects an undertaking; this trans-sectarian aspect mirrors attempt to ‘bridge’ the Buddhist Amṛtakuṇḍalin the use of the opening formula ṭaki hūṁ jaḥ and the Śaiva Gaṇapati, which would amount to in the three short Old Javanese inscriptions in a a Śaiva appropriation of a largely co-function- manner that is co-functional with the use of the al Buddhist apotropaic deity. Given that in the formula oṁ avighnam astu [gaṇapataye namaḥ] Amṛtakuṇḍalivināyakabandhadhāraṇī (cf. Giebel in inscriptions and manuscripts. hus, the aim 2010: 191) Amṛtakuṇḍalin is described as ‘having seems to have been apotropaic, i.e. to exorcise the put an end to the life of Mahāgaṇapati’ (mahāg- potentially dangerous beings and transform them aṇapatijīvitāntakarāya), implying a fundamental into benign guardians of the gates or points of the enmity between the two vināyaka/vighnāntaka compass.59 his process is symbolically enacted deities, this appropriation would carry an element through the summoning, drawing, overpowering, of anti-Buddhist polemic. and reviving of the deity, who is thereby trans- formed. At the same time, it cannot be exclud-...and on taming elephants ed that the formula presupposes an element of anti-Śaiva polemic, alluding to the taming, con- he mantric unit jaḥ is well represented in Buddhist version, and transformation of Gaṇapati into an Tantras as the mantric expedient used to adduct or auspicious Buddhist deity. invoke the victim or deity in the preliminary part (6) he mention of ‘the refuge given by the Sun’ (ādityasya parāyaṇam) in śloka 4 of the Pañ- 60. Indeed the Shi