190 Exam 3 Concept Blueprint PDF

190 Exam 3 Concept Blueprint This blueprint can be used as a GUIDE that indicates the distribution of questions across the material covered for this exam The exam will contain 50 multiple choice questions (@ 1 pt. each) and 2 short answer questions (@5 pts. each) Multiple-Choice Questions:...

190 Exam 3 Concept Blueprint This blueprint can be used as a GUIDE that indicates the distribution of questions across the material covered for this exam The exam will contain 50 multiple choice questions (@ 1 pt. each) and 2 short answer questions (@5 pts. each) Multiple-Choice Questions: Chapter 11 – 7 questions total scaffold that binds two protein complexes and o 11.1 – overview of non-coding RNAs (1) guides them to particular genes o Non-coding RNA’s (ncRNA’s) are RNA molecules o The protein complexes covalently modify histones that do not code polypeptides and these modifications inhibit transcription of the o ncRNA’s bind to different types of molecule’s, target genes including DNA, other RNAs, proteins and small o 11.4 – ncRNAs – translation and mRNA degradation (2) molecules o MicroRNA (miRNAs) play a key roles in regulating o An ncRNA can provide a scaffold, act as a guide, gene expression, during embryonic development in alter protein function or stability, function as a animals and plants ribozyme, function as a blocked, and act as a decoy o Fire and Mello showed that double-stranded RNA is o ncRNAs play a role in DNA replication, chromatin more potent at silencing mRNA that is antisense structure, transcription, translation, RNA RNA degradation, protein sorting and secretion, and o RNA interference RNAi is a mechanism of mRNA genome defense silencing in which miRNA or siRNA becomes part of o 11.2 – ncRNAs – eukaryotic DNA replication (1) an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that o The ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes have inhibits that translation of specific mRNA or causes telomeres composed of repeat sequences. its degradation, respectively o An ncRNA within telomerase called TERC guides o 11.5 – ncRNAs – protein targeting (1) telomerase to the telomere repeat sequence and o Signal recognition particle (SRP), which is also functions as a template for the synthesis of a composed of one or more proteins and an ncRNA, six-nucleotide repeat plays a role in directing proteins to the plasma o This synthesis also provides a site for an RNA membrane of prokaryotic cells and to the ER primer to be made, and DNA polymerase membrane of Eukaryotic cells synthesizes the complementary DNA strand o 11.6 – ncRNAs – genome defense (1) o 11.3 – ncRNAs – chromatin structure and transcription (1) o The CRISPR-Cas system in bacteria and archaea o HOTAIR is an ncRNA found in humans and other provides defense against bacteriophages and mammals that regulates transcription by forming a transposons  o The defense occurs in 3 phases: adaptation, RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon. expression, and interference When allolactose binds to the repressor, a conformational change occurs that prevents the Chapter 12 – 10 questions total repressor from binding to the operator so that o 12.1 – overview of gene regulation (2) transcription can proceed o Most genes are regulated so that the level of gene o Positive control of the lac operon occurs when the expression can vary under different conditions. By catabolite activator protein (CAP) binds to the CAP comparison, constitutive genes are expressed at site in the presence of cAMP. This causes a bend in constant levels the DNA, which promotes the binding of RNA o Gene regulation ensure that gene products are polymerase to the promoter made only when needed. An example is the o Glucose inhibits cAMP production, which in turn synthesis of the gene products needed for lactose inhibits the expression of the lac operon because utilization in bacteria CAP cannot bind to the CAP site. This form of o Eukaryotic gene regulation leads to the production regulation provides bacteria with a more efficient of different cells types, such as neurons, muscle utilization of their resources because the bacteria cells, and skin cells. Eukaryotic gene regulation also preferentially use one sugar enables gene products to be produced at different o 12.3 – regulation of transcription in eukaryotes (2) developmental stages o Eukaryotic genes exhibit combinatorial control, o All organisms regulate gene expression at various meaning that many factors control the expression points in the process, including transcription, of a single gene translation and post-translation. Eukaryotes also o Eukaryotic promoters consist of a core promoter regulate RNA modification (containing a TAT box and transcriptional start site) o 12.2 – regulation of transcription in bacteria (2) and regulatory elements, such as enhancers or o Repressors and activators are regulatory silencers, that regulate the rate of transcription transcription factors that bind to DNA and affect o General transcription factors (GTFs) are needed for the transcription of gene. Small effector molecules RNA polymerase 2 to bind to the core promoter, control the ability of regulatory transcription facts forming a preinitiation complex to bind to the DNA o Activations and repressors may regulate RNA o An operon is a set of two or more protein-coding polymerase 2 by interacting with TFIID (a GTF) genes controlled by a single promoter and an o Transcription in archaea appears to be a simplifies operator. The lac operon is an example of an version of eukaryotic transcription inducible operon. LAC repressor exerts negative o 12.4 – chromatin structure changes, DNA methylation (2) control by binding to the operator and preventing  o Chromatin-remodeling complexes change the o A mutation is a heritable change in the genetic positions and compositions of nucleosomes material; gene mutations are changes in the base o The pattern of covalent modifications of the amino sequence of a gene. Point mutations affect a singl terminal tails of histone proteins, also called the bas pair and can alter the coding sequence of histone code, inhibits or promotes transcription genes in several ways, producing silent, missense, o Eukaryotic genes are usually flanked by nonsense and frameshift mutations nucleosome-free regions. For eukaryotic protein- o Many human disorders are cause by mutations that coding genes, a preinitiation compels forms at a affect the coding sequence of genes nucleosome-free region. During elongation, o Gene mutations are also alter gene function by nucleosomes are displaced ahead of RNA changing DNA sequences that are not within the polymerase 2 and re-form after RNA polymerase coding region has passed o Germ-line mutations affect gametes and can be o DNA methylation, which occurs at CpG islands near passes to offspring, whereas mutations in somatic promoters, usually inhibits transcription by (1) cells affect only a part of the body and cannot be preventing the binding of activator proteins or (2) passed to offspring promoting the binding of proteins that inhibit o 13.2 – causes of mutations (2) transcription o The Lederbergs used replica plating to show that o The formation of facultative heterochromatin may mutations are random events silence genes in a tissue-specific manner o Spontaneous mutations are the result of o 12.5 – Regulation of RNA splicing and translation (2) abnormalities in biological processes. Induced o In alternative splicing, a pre-mRNA can be spliced mutations are cause by mutagens-chemical in more than one way, producing polypeptides with substances or physical agents in the environment somewhat different sequences. This is a common that alter DNA structure way for complex eukaryotes to increase the size of o The Ames test is a method of testing whether an their proteomes agent is a mutagen o RNA-binding proteins regulate the translation of o 13.3 – DNA repair (1) specific mRNAs. An example is the regulation of o DNA repair systems consist of proteins that sense iron absorption, in which the iron regulatory DNA damage and repair it before a mutation occurs protein (IRP) regulates the translation of ferritin o In nucleotide excision repair (NER), certain Uvr mRNA proteins recognize DNA damage, such as thymine dimers. A region in the damaged strand is excised, Chapter 13 – 6 questions total and a new strand is synthesized, using the intact o 13.1 – consequences of mutations (3) strand as a template  o During Mitosis, the nucleus of a mother cell divides into two genetically identical nuclei. Mitosis occurs in five phases called prophase, prometaphase, Chapter 14 – 9 questions total metaphase, anaphase, and telophase o 14.1 – eukaryotic cell cycle (3) o Cytokinesis occurs by a cleavage furrow in animal o A micrograph that shows the alignment of cells and by the formation of a cell plate in plant chromosomes form a given cell is called a cells karyotype. Eukaryotic chromosomes are inherited o FtsZ in bacteria and tubulin in eukaryotes are in sets. A diploid cells has two sets of homologous proteins that are important in chromosomes. The members of each pair of identifying the site where cell division will occur chromosomes are called homologs o 14.3 – meiosis and sexual reproduction (2) o The eukaryotic cells type consists of four pahses o The process of meiosis begins with a diploid cell called the G1 (cell growth), S phase ( synthesis of cell and produces four haploid cells with one set of DNA), G2 (second gap) and M ( mitosis and chromosomes each cytokinesis) phase. The G1, S, and G2 phases are o Meiosis consists of two divisions- meiosis 1 and 2 – collectively known as interphase each composed of prophase, prometaphase, o An interaction between cyclins and cyclin- metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During dependent kinase (cdks) is necessary for cells to meiosis 1, the homologs are separated into two advance through the cell cycle. Checkpoint proteins different cells and into four different cells sense the integrity of the genome and the o 14.4 – variation in chromosome structure and number (2) environmental conditions, respectively, and control o Meiosis provides a mechanism to enhance genetic whether or not the cell advances through the cell diversity among gametes. A proposed advantage of cycle sexual reproduction is that it promotes a greater o 14.2 – mitotic cell division (2) diversity of traits that can result in a more rapid o In the process of mitotic cell division, a cell divides adaptation to environmental changes compared to to produce two new cells (the daughter cells) that asexual reproduction are genetically identical to the original cell o Animals are diploid-dominant species, whereas o During S phase, eukaryotic chromosomes are most fungi and some protists are haploid-dominant replicated to produce a pair of identical sister species. Plants alternate between diploid and chromatids that remain attached haploid forms, which is called alternation of o The spindle apparatus is a network of microtubules generations that plays a central role in chromosomes sorting during cells division Chapter 15 – 9 questions total o 15.1 – Mendel’s laws of inheritance (3) gene is located at a particular site, or locus, on a o Mendel studies seven characters of garden peas chromosome that exisited in two varients each. He allowed his o 15.3 – pedigree analysis of human traits (1) pea plants to delf-fertilize or conducted a o The inheritance patterns in humans are hybridization experiments determined form pedigree analysis o Mendel determined that certain traits exist in two o 15.4 – variations in inheritance patterns (2) forms, dominant and recessive. An individual o Recessive inheritance is often due to a loss-of- carries two genes for a given character, and genes function allele. In many simple dominate/recessive have variant forms, ehcihare called alleles relationships, the heterozygote has a dominate o By following the inheritance pattern of a single phenotype because 50% of the normal protein is character for two generations, Mendel proposed sufficient to produce that phenotype the Lad of segregation which staes that two alleles o Mutant alleles, which are recessive are responsible segregate during the process that gives rise to for many inherited diseases in humans gametes so that every gamete receives only one o In many cases, the effects of a mutant allele are allele in a dingl-facotr corss, a 3:1 ration is pleiotropic, meaning the expression of the gene observed between the dominant and the recessive affects several different aspects of bodily structure traits in the F2 genertation and function o The geneotype is the gnetic makeup of an organism o Incomplete dominance occurs when a Phenotype is a description of the traits that an heterozygote has a phenotype that is intermediate organism displays. between that of either homozygote. This occurs o A Punnett square is constructed to predict the because 50% of the functional protein is not outcome of a cross enough to produce the same phenotypes as a o By conducting a two-factor cross, Mendel homozygote determined the law of independent assortment, o Genes and the environment interact to determine which states that the alleles of different genes an individuals phenotypes. The norm of reaction is assort independently of each other during gamete the phenotypes exhibit under different formation. In a two-factor cross, this yields a environmental conditions 9:3:3:1 ration in the F2 generation. o 15.5 – sex chromosomes, X-linked inheritance (2) o 15.2 – chromosome theory of inheritance (1) o Most species of animals have separate male and o The chromosome theory of inheritance explains female sexes. In many species, sex chromosomes how the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis determine an individuals sex accounts for Mendel’s law of inheritance. Each o X-linked genes are ound on the X chromosome but not the Y chromosome. X-Linked recessive alleles I  humans cause diseases, such as hemophilia, which X inactivation centers (Xics) causes osmatic cells to have are more likely to occur in males. only one active X chromosome o 16.4 – epigenetics – environmental agents (1) Chapter 16 – 9 questions total o Dietary factors during early stages of development o 16.1 – overview of epigenetics (1) cause epigenetic changes that affect phenotype o Epigenetics is the study of mechanisms that lead to o Environmental agents have been shown to cause changes in gene expression that can be passed epigenetic changes that are associated with human from cell to cell and are reversible but do not diseases such as cancer involve a change in the sequence of DNA o 16.5 – organelle genomes (2) o The most common types of molecular changes that o Mitochondria and chloroplasts are derived from an underlie epigenetic effects of gene expression are ancient endosymbiotic relationship and carry a DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, covalent small number of genes. The inheritance of such histone modification, and the localization of genes is called extranuclear inheritance histone variants o Chloroplasts in the four-o’clock plant are o 16.2 – epigenetics – genomic imprinting (2) transmitted via the egg, a pattern called maternal o As a result of genomic imprinting, offspring express inheritance either a maternal or a paternal allele, depending on o Several human diseases are known to be cause by how a particular gene is marked or imprinted mutations in mitochondria inheritance pattern o During gamete formation, DNA methylation of an o 16.6 – linkage of genes (2) allele form one parent is a mechanism to achieve imprinting o When two different genes are close together on o 16.3 – epigenetics – X-chromosome inactivation (1) the same chromosome and tend to be transmitted o If a female is heterozygous for an X-linked gene, this can as a unit they are said to be linked. Linked genes lead to a mosaic phenotype, with some of the somatic tend to be inherited as a unit, unless crossing over cells expressing one allele and some expressing the other separates them o XCI in female mammals occurs when one X chromosome in o The Chi square test can be used to determine if the every somatic cell is randomly inactivated. The counting of outcome of two-factor cross is consistent with linkage or with independent assortment. Short Answer Questions will cover the following topics: o Chapter 14 – mitosis and meiosis (identifying and sketching cells in various stages of division) o Chapters 15 & 16 – solving crosses, predicting genotype and phenotype outcomes, identifying inheritance patterns