Psychology Presentation PDF

PSYCHOLOGY Part 1 INTRODUCTION  Psychology Defined Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the behaviour of living organisms, with special attention to human behaviour.  Schools of Thought 1. Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud Existence of unconscious mental proc...

PSYCHOLOGY Part 1 INTRODUCTION  Psychology Defined Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the behaviour of living organisms, with special attention to human behaviour.  Schools of Thought 1. Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud Existence of unconscious mental processes which influenced an individual’s behaviour in various indirect ways. Key words: unconscious, sex, aggression, childhood experiences, dreams  Schools of Thought 2. Behaviourism John B. Watson. Stimulus – Response approach Key words: conditioning, learning  Schools of Thought 3. Cognitive Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert Simon Focused on thought and mental processes, analyzing how people acquire, store and process information. Key words: attention, knowledge, information  Schools of Thought 4. Humanistic Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom of choice and decision making, as well as their potential for personal growth. Key words: freedom, self-actualization, phenomenology  Schools of Thought 5. Biological James Olds and Roger Sperry Human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of bodily structure and biochemical processes. Key words: neuroscience, brain structures Part 2 BIOPSYCHOLOGY 1. Higher mental processes such as thinking, learning and decision making are functions of the: a. cerebellum c. cerebrum b. thalamus d. medulla 2. A person with difficulty enunciating words correctly and speak in a slow, labored way most likely have damage in: a. Wernicke’s area b. Broca’s area c. primary motor area d. prefrontal cortex 3. Which regions of the brain lead to undereating and overeating, respectively? a. lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus b. ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus c. ventromedial hypothalamus only d. lateral hypothalamus Part 3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION  Sensation Results when any of the sense organs are stimulated. For a sensation to occur, there must be receptors, which are specialized sensitive cells that respond to stimulus.  Sensory System SIGHT SMELL TASTE TOUCH HEARING Light Chemical Chemical Pressure, Touch, Sound STIMULUS Temperature Cones, Olfactory Taste buds Mechano- Organ of Rods receptor Receptors, Corti RECEPTOR thermo- receptors Optic Trigeminal Glosso- Spinal nerves Auditory, pharyngeal, Vestibular NERVE Facial, Vagus RELAY Thalamus Olfactory bulb Thalamus Thalamus Thalamus CENTER Visual Olfactory Gustatory Somatosensory Primary PERCEPTION Cortex Cortex Cortex Cortex Auditory Cortex  Vision Cones operate at high intensities, lead to sensations of color, and are found only in the center (or fovea) of the retina. Rods operate at low intensities, lead to colorless sensations, and predominate in the periphery of the retina.  Perception It is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli. The study of perception deals with two major functions of the perceptual system: LOCALIZATION, or determining where objects are, and RECOGNITION, determining what objects are.  Extrasensory Perception ESP is a response to external stimuli without any known sensory contact. Telepathy: Thought transference from one person to another without the mediation of any known channel of sensory communication. Psychokinesis: Mental influence over physical events without the intervention of any known physical force.  Extrasensory Perception Clairvoyance: Perception of objects or events that do not provide a stimulus to the known senses. The ability to perceive objects or events. Precognition: is the ability to foretell future events. Perception of a future event that could not be anticipated through any known inferential. Part 4 CONSCIOUSNESS  Consciousness Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined as: sentience, awareness, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, and the executive control system of the mind.  Altered State Of Consciousness Examples are dreams and sleep, meditation, hypnosis and the use of drugs.  Sleep There are four stages of NREM sleep + REM NREM sleep is characterized by an idle brain in a very relaxed body. REM sleep is characterized by a brain that appears to be wide awake in a virtually paralyzed body. Sleepers awakened during REM sleep almost always report having a dream, but when awakened during NREM sleep they will report having a dream only about 25% of the time.  Dream Are remembered images and fantasies are temporarily confused with external reality. Everybody dreams Sometimes, people do know when they are dreaming (lucid). People can control the content of their dreams. Dream content, as explained by Freud, are a disguised attempt at wish fulfillment.  Meditation Refers to a family of mental exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus attention in a non-analytical way. Dynamic consciousness means an ability on of the person to be in the appropriate state of attention for the task in hand. In particular a static state of right-brain awareness combined with a predominantly Alpha (relaxed) meditative detachment.  Hypnosis Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility. It may lead to passive relaxation, narrowed attention and enhanced fantasy. Some people are more readily hypnotized than others, although most people show some susceptibility.  Psychoactive Drugs Drug dependence is characterized by tolerance, withdrawal and compulsive use. Stimulants Depressants Hallucinogens  Attention Selective attention is the process by which we select some stimuli for further processing while ignoring others. Selective looking and selective listening (e.g. cocktail party phenomenon) both exist. 7. Aladdin, upon getting hold of the magic lamp, asked the genie to give him the power of precognition, meaning: a. the ability to read what another person is thinking b. to move things in space without physical intervention c. to perceive future events d. to perceive objects that do not provide stimulus to the known senses 8. Which statement best differentiates NREM from REM sleep? a. NREM sleep is characterized by a brain that appears wide awake in a virtually paralyzed body, while REM sleep is characterized by an idle brain. b. Sleepers wakened during REM sleep almost always report having a dream as compared to NREM sleep where they report dreams only 25% of the time. c. Dreams in NREM are visually vivid and have emotional features while dreams in REM are more like normal thinking. d. none of the above Part 5 LEARNING  Learning  Learning the process of acquiring new & lasting information or behaviors.  We learn by association.  Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex- producing stimulus, will begin to produce a learned response, even when it is presented by itself. Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. Pavlov’s Experiment  Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which the probability of a behavioral response is changed by its consequence, that is, by the stimuli that follows the response.  Operant Conditioning Behavioral responses are strengthened when followed by a reinforcer: …and diminished when followed by a punisher Operant Chamber: a chamber with a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce while an attached device records the animal’s rate of bar-pressing or key turning.  Reinforcement A reinforcer is a condition in which the presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs after a response (behavior), strengthens that response or makes it more likely to happen again in the future. Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again.  Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the probability of that response happening again. – Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache. – Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop. REMEMBER: When we are talking about reinforcers or punishers, the word “positive” means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.  Punishment A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the probability it will occur again. Positive Punishment: An undesirable event that follows a behavior: like getting detention after cheating on a test.  Punishment Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or when an item is taken away after a behavior. – Example: getting your cell phone taken away after failing multiple classes on your progress report. Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a certain time interval. Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain number of responses. – There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement: Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)  Interval Schedules Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): – A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct response after some defined period of time. Ex. Salary, wage  Interval Schedules Variable Interval Schedule (VI): A reinforcement system that rewards a correct response after an unpredictable amount of time. Ex. Feeding the fish  Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a defined number of correct answers. Ex: Reward cards  Ratio Schedules Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. Ex: Buying lottery scratch-off tickets  Observational Learning You can think of observational learning as an extension of operant conditioning, in which we observe someone else getting rewarded but act as though we had also received the reward. Observational learning: Learning in which new responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the consequences of their behavior are observed. 9. In classical conditioning experiments, a tone, after being repeatedly paired with food - a conditioned stimulus – makes the dog salivate. This illustrates: a. Second-order conditioning b. Generalization c. Discrimination d. Sensitization 10. A pigeon is given a food pellet after every 10 bar presses in a Skinner’s box. What type of reinforcement is employed? a. fixed ratio c. variable ratio b. fixed interval d. variable interval 11. In operant conditioning, the reward a. follows the behavior b. comes before the behavior c. occurs at the same time as the behavior d. elicits the behavior 12. A child is spanked to stop him from teasing a younger sibling. This is an example of: a. aversive conditioning b. negative conditioning c. escape d. avoidance Part 6 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT  Principles of Growth and Development Heredity x Environment x Time = Developmental Level Maturation: follows an orderly sequence. New structures and functions always appear in a definite order, so that each new development sets the stage for the next. Stages Of Development  Motor Development: motor refers to movement, such as walking, swimming, grasping, etc. Motor skills appear in a definite order but at different rates. – Prehension: refers to grasping objects. Its simplest form is palmar grasping. By using the thumb in opposition to the index finger, a finer grasp is developed, as when picking up a piece of paper.  Language Development: infant begin life with no other language than their cries and grunts. As their language mechanism matures, they make more and more sounds and begin to comprehend the meaning of words they hear.  Cognitive Development Jean Piaget Adaptation involves the child's changing to meet situational demands. – Assimilation is the application of previous concepts to new concepts. – Accommodation is the altering of previous concepts in the face of new information. Cognitive Development (Piaget) Moral Development (Kohlberg) Psychosexual Development (Freud) 4. Thunder causes lightning and bad thoughts because of an accident is characteristic of the: a. preoperational stage b. concrete operational stage c. formal operational stage d. sensorimotor stage 5. Which of the following is true of the concrete operational stage of cognitive development by Piaget? a. thinking is egocentric b. becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future and ideological problems c. classifies objects according to several features d. conservation of number not yet achieved 6. Maturation refers to: a. orderly changes in behavior that are caused by experience b. disrupted prenatal development that results in permanent defects c. natural physical growth processes that are relatively independent of events d. the acquisition of adult behavior through social contact Part 7 MEMORY  Memory Stages: 1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval  Memory Techniques Although we cannot increase the capacity of STM, we can use recording schemes to enlarge the size of the chunk and thereby increase the memory span. LTM for facts can be improved at the encoding and retrieval stages. One way to improve encoding and retrieval is to use imagery, which is the basic principle underlying mnemonic system. Mnemonic  Forgetting Ceasing or failing to remember or being unable to recall past responses or memory. Explanations of Forgetting: 1. Passive decay through disuse 2. Systematic distortions of the memory trace 3. Interference effects 4. Motivated forgetting 13. While reading “Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone” in class, your teacher called on you. Although obviously present, you do not remember anything that was said. This is known as the: a. Cocktail party phenomenon b. late selection phenomenon c. selective looking phenomenon d. classroom-inattention phenomenon 14. True of rods and cones except: a. cones: sensation of color b. rods: predominate in the periphery of the retina c. more rods connected to ganglion cells d. visual acuity is greatest when based on rods 15. Ways to improve memory include: a. chunking c. elaboration b. imagery d. all of the above 16. After a car accident, Dylan McKay experienced amnesia. Which would he most likely still remember? a. how to drive a car b. his girlfriend’s number c. his birthday last year d. he will not remember anything at all 17. Which is true about language? a. Like other innate behaviors, some language is learned only during a critical period. b. Children learn language at least partly by testing hypotheses. c. Infants come into the world preprogrammed to learn phonemes, but they need several years to learn the rules for combining them. d. All of the statements are true. 18. Films or motion pictures are simply a rapid series of still images flashed in rapid succession inducing apparent movement. This utilizes the phenomenon known as: a. apparent motion c. stroboscopic motion b. real motion d. induced motion 19. True of pitch: a. most striking quality of sound b. increases with the amplitude of the sound wave c. place theories account for low frequencies d. temporal theories account for high frequencies 20. When a door swings toward us, its retinal image goes through a series of changes yet we perceive a door to still be rectangular. This is due to: a. stroboscopic motion b. figure-ground constancy c. pattern recognition d. shape constancy 21. Figure is to ground as: a. thunder is to lightning b. water is to ice c. light is to dark d. cloud is to sky Part 8 MOTIVES AND EMOTION  Motives Motivational states direct and activate behaviour. They arise from two sources: internal drive factors and external incentive. Many types of natural rewards may activate the mesolimbic dopamine system.  Classification of Motives Physiologic: hunger, thirst, temperature, pain avoidance Social or psychological: achievement, altruism, affiliation and social approval Neither strictly biological nor social: sex drive  Hunger Two regions of the brain are critical to hunger: the lateral hypothalamus and the ventromedial hypothalamus. Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus leads to under eating Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus leads to overeating.  Emotions Comes from the Latin word “emovere” meaning “to move out”. It conveys the idea of an outward expression of something inside, which is one aspect of emotion.  Physiological Changes Galvanic Skin Response Blood Pressure and Volume Heart Rate Respiration Pupillary Response Salivary Secretion Pilomotor Response Gastrointestinal Motility Muscle Tension and Tremor Blood composition Theories of Emotion Universal Emotions 22. True of motivation: a. Motivation typically directs behavior towards a particular incentive that produces pleasure. b. We are motivated to alleviate an unpleasant state. c. Incentive motivation is characterized by affect. d. All of the above statements are true. 23. Dawson frequently volunteers in activities of socio-civic organizations in their community. What social motive is at play here? a. achievement c. social approval b. affiliation d. altruism 24. Which of the statements below illustrate the relationship between arousal and performance? a. Low levels of emotional arousal lead to poor performance. b. Moderate levels of emotional arousal do not affect performance. c. High levels of emotional arousal enhance performance. d. There is no relationship between levels of arousal and performance. 25. Which of the following is not true regarding the functions of attitudes? a. Attitudes that we hold for practical reasons serve and instrumental function b. Those that help us make sense of the world serve a knowledge function. c. Those that express our values or reflect our self- concepts serve an ego-defensive function. d. Those that help us feel that we are part of a social community serve a social adjustment function 26. Stimulus leads to physiological arousal and overt behavior specific to the emotion which in turn leads to the subjective experience of emotion. This is an expression of the: a. James-Lange theory b. Schracter-Singer theory c. appraisal theory d. facial feedback hypothesis 27. A lawyer is defending a minor charged with assault. How would he explain his client’s aggressive behavior using the psychoanalytic theory? a. His client had an aversive experience promoting emotional arousal which led to the aggressive behavior. b. His client saw a man being rewarded for expressing aggression, thus he did the same thing. c. His client’s frustration induced his aggressive drive motivation the aggressive behavior. d. All of the foregoing statements can be used to explain his client’s behavior. Part 9 PERSONALITY THEORIES  Personality Refers to the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that define an individual’s personal style of interacting with the physical and social environments.  Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud He argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Provinces of The Mind Provinces of the Mind DEFENSE MECHANISMS  Denial Blocking out a fact mentally because it is too painful too accept  Displacement Taking out one’s feelings or frustrations on someone or something other than that created those feelings  Projection The misattribution of one’s undesired thoughts, onto a person who does not have those thoughts  Rationalization Justifying one’s act by providing a ‘good” reason for doing it.  Reaction formation Converting of irrational thoughts into their positive opposites  Regression A reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unwanted fears or thoughts.  Repression Burying a bad thought or fear in one’s mind that can be brought out in symboloic form  Sublimation Redirecting unacceptable drives into acceptable channels Carl Roger’s Theory of Personality 28. Which of the following is true describing Jung’s theory of personality? a. The most powerful and influential system of the psyche, and in pathological cases overshadows the ego is the personal unconscious. b. An archetype is a universal thought from that contains large element of emotion. c. The person lives by aims as well as by causes. d. His view of psychodynamics is based upon two fundamental principles, equivalence and entropy.  29. True of phenomenological approach to the study of personality: a. The concept of “self” forms the cornerstone of Roger’s theory. b. focused on the individual’s objective and subjective experiences c. Personal construct theory takes a behavioral perspective in the individual’s phenomenology. d. All of the above. 30. Refers to the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion and behavior that define an individual’s own style of interacting with the physical and social environment. a. attitude c. schema b. coping mechanism d. personality 31. An anxious person who seeks to return to the womb is fixated in which stage? a. oral c. phallic b. anal d. genital 32. Saying “I’m sad you’re well” instead of “I’m glad you’re well” is an example of: a. Freudian slip b. Stupidity c. shadow error d. cognitive misappraisal 33. Leonardo da Vinci’s interest in painting Madonna was an expression of a longing for intimacy with his mother from whom he had been separated at a tender age, this illustrates: a. externalization b. Sublimation c. reaction formation d. anticipation 34. When you are hungry, you conjure mental images of food. This wish-fulfilling process is a function of your… a. id c. superego b. ego d. libido 35. Albert Einstein, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Eleanor Roosevelt satisfy Maslow’s criteria for self-actualizers. This means that they: a. are purposely unconventional b. are incapable of appreciating complex experiences only c. care very cautious in thought and behavior d. have a good sense of humor 36. An individual’s personality evokes distinctive responses from others. This dynamic process of personality-environment interaction is referred to as: a. reactive interaction b. evocative interaction c. proactive interaction d. none of the above Part 10 MENTAL DISORDERS 37. Richard Gere in the film “Mr. Jones” has bipolar disorder. This means that he has altering states of: a. mania and anxiety b. anxiety and depression c. mania and depression d. none of the above 38. Schizophrenia is: a. the same as multiple personality disorder b. characterized by enlarged and more active prefrontal cortex and smaller ventricles c. due to difficult environment alone d. characterized by lack of insight 39. True of systematic desensitization: a. can be viewed as deconditioning or counterconditioning processes b. not very effective in the treatment of phobias and fears c. principle of treatment is to substitute a response that is incompatible with anxiety d. none of the above 40. True of coping: a. Defense mechanisms always indicate personality maladjustment. b. Rationalization, repression and intellectualization are conscious processes. c. Saying “I decided it wasn’t worth it” is a cognitive strategy of dealing with negative emotion. d. Higher levels of depression are seen during and after stressful situations in people who tend to use problem-focused coping. 41. Personality disorders: a. are transient patterns of maladaptive behavior b. constitute immature and inappropriate ways of coping with stress c. often upsets the afflicted person that motivates him to change his behavior d. causes the person to lose contact with reality 42. After his separation from his girlfriend, Freddie Prinze Jr. in the movie: Down to You: become severely depressed. Thus, his parents proposed electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or electroshock therapy. What is the most troublesome effect of ECT? a. memory loss c. severe pain b. discomfort d. brain damage 43. A 13-year old boy was brought by his mother to you for diagnosis. He is unable to conform to social norms. Sometimes, he is normal and even charming but more often he lies and manipulates people. He has a history of running away from home, theft and substance abuse. What personality disorder does he most probably have? a. borderline c. histrionic b. schizotypal d. antisocial 44. Jim, a lawyer, is often teased by his friends for his type A personality. This means that Jim: a. is fond of scheduling more and more activities in less and less time b. loves to relax and do nothing c. is at less risk for heart attack d. believes that others can do thing as well as he does Part 11 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 45. Arousal strengthens dominant responses. This is referred to as social facilitation. What accounts for this arousal? a. evaluation apprehension b. driven by distraction c. mere presence of others d. all of the above 46. Beer advertisements that associate beautiful women, strength and intelligence with their products make use of: a. peripheral route of persuasion b. central route of persuasion c. both central and peripheral route of persuasion d. neither central and peripheral route of persuasion 47. The uninhabited, aggressive behavior sometimes shown by mobs and crowds may be the result of a state of deindividuation. Which of the following is not true regarding the consequences of deindividuation? a. weakened restraints against impulsive behavior b. decreased sensitivity to immediate cues and current emotional state c. reduced concern with evaluation by others d. none of the above 48. Which of the following is a symptom of groupthink? a. awareness of vulnerability b. collective unconscious c. non-censorship d. presence of mindguards 49. Experiments show that these techniques increase helping behavior: a. foot-in-the-door technique b. door-in-the-face technique c. low-ball technique d. all of the above 50. In difficult times, when budgets are slashed and taxes are high, homeless women with small children are often target of hostility because they are perceived as responsible for their situation and as a drain on scarce social resources. This is known as: a. scapegoating b. realistic group conflict c. ethnocentrism d. discrimination