Criticism 1st Year Past Paper PDF - South Valley University

South Valley University Faculty of Arts Department of English Criticism 1st Year ‫مقرر الفرقة األولى قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية‬ Compiled and prepared by Dr. Yasmeen Darwish English Departmen...

South Valley University Faculty of Arts Department of English Criticism 1st Year ‫مقرر الفرقة األولى قسم اللغة اإلنجليزية‬ Compiled and prepared by Dr. Yasmeen Darwish English Department Faculty of Arts South Valley University 2024-2025 1  Table of Contents  Introduction  Four Critical Theories from the view point of M H Abrams  Elements of Short Story Analysis  Selection of Short Stories  Elements of Poetry Analysis  Selection of Poems  Glossary of Literary Terms  References 2 3  Introduction “Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.” Sir Richard Steele, Irish essayist and politician Reading and writing seem to be inseparable acts, rather like two sides of the same coin. When we encounter a book that touches our emotions or disturbs our assumptions, for example, we want to share our reactions with someone else. We may call a friend to talk about it, or if there is nobody to listen, we may turn to writing to explain what we think and feel about what we have read. Every piece of literature conveys meaning, but understanding its message can be a complicated process. In many cases, unless stated otherwise by the author, the message can be subjective. This means each of us might interpret the same text in a slightly different way. This is why scholars have devised ways to understand how people interpret a text. Practicing literary criticism requires more than a single effort or skill. Literary criticism analyzes fiction, poetry, drama by considering key issues such as plot, character, setting, theme, imagery, and voice. Literary criticism may also consider the effectiveness of a work of literature, but it‘s important to note that in this context the word ―criticism‖ doesn‘t simply mean finding fault with the writing but rather looking at it from a critical or analytical viewpoint in order to understand it better. It‘s also important to note that literary criticism involves more than just summarizing the plot or offering biographical information about the author. 4  The practice of literary theory became a profession in the 20th century, but it has historical roots as far back as ancient Greece (Aristotle‘s Poetics is an often cited early example). 5 6  Four Critical Theories from the view point of M H Abrams Meyer (Mike) Howard Abrams (born July 23, 1912) is an American literary critic, known for works on Romanticism, in particular his book The Mirror and the Lamp. Contribution of him in the postmodern literary criticism cannot be avoided. Abrams stands unique because of his four oriental critical theories which cover up entire history of English literary theories and criticism. In literature nothing is existed out of universe, text, artist, and audience. As Abrams demonstrates in the "Orientation of Critical Theories" chapter of his book The Mirror and the Lamp. From Plato until the late 18th century the artist was thought to play a back-seat role in the creation of art. He was regarded as no more than "a mirror," reflecting nature either as it exists or as it is perfected or enhanced through the mirror. This artist-as-mirror conception remained dominant until the advent of the Romantic era (Abrams sets the date around 1800), when the artist began to make his transformation from ―mirror‖ to ―lamp‖―- a lamp that actively participates in the object it illuminates. To work on M. H. Abrams is most influential studies in the field of criticism and theory. Till today, the chief tendency of modern criticism is to consider the aesthetic quality in terms of relation of art to the artist. M.H. Abrams in his essay ―Orientation of critical Theories‖ tries to the growth of criticism in relation of art, artist, and audience. Considering a whole work of art, there are four elements which are well distinguished and made important in almost all the theories, first, there is the work, the artistic product 7 itself. Since this is a human product, the next common element is the artist. The work is directly or indirectly related to the universe inclusive of man, material things, events and ideas. The audiences come as the final element. On this frame work of artist, work, universe and audience, M.H. Abrams has spread out various theories for comparison. To make matters easier he has arranged the four elements in a convenient triangular pattern with the work of art, the thing to be explained in the center. According to this frame work, M. H. Abrams gives four critical theories i.e. Mimetic, Pragmatic, Expressive, and Objective theories. 1) Mimetic theory - The first category of mimetic theories forms the oldest and is, according to Abrams, the ―most primitive‖ of the four categories. According to this theory, the artist is an imitator of aspects of the observable universe. This theory focuses on the relationship between text and universe (by "universe" he means all things of the world apart from audience, text and author). 8 2) Pragmatic theory- The second type of theories are pragmatic theories, which are concerned with the relation between text and audience. According to Abrams, these theories have constituted the dominant mode of analysis from Horace to the early 19th century, and much of its terminology is borrowed from ancient rhetoric. 3) Expressive theory- which is concerned with the text-author relationship. By 1800, we begin to see ―the displacement of mimetic and pragmatic by the expressive view of art,‖ a phenomenon due in part to the writings of Bacon, Wordsworth, and, later, the radical Romantics of the 1830s. With this new ―expressive view‖ of art, the primary duty of the artist was no longer to serve as a mirror reflecting outer things, but instead to externalize the internal, and make one's ―inner life‖ the primary subject of art. It is around this time in the early 19th century that the ―mirror,‖ which had hitherto been the conventional symbol for the artist, becomes the ―lamp. To give an overview of the evolution of Western aesthetics up to this point, Abrams provides the following rough timeline. In the age of Plato and Aristotle, poets were mimetic poets, and their personal roles and intrusions were kept to a minimum. In the Hellenistic and Roman eras, poets were pragmatic, and they sought to satisfy the public, abide by the rules of decorum, and apply techniques borrowed from rhetoric. From 1800 to 1900, poets, specifically those of 9  England and Germany, were self-affirming figures whose task was to express to the world their inner genius. 4) Objective theory - the most recent classification, which focus on analysis of the text in isolation. Though extremely rare in pre-20th-century history, this fourth alternative― to view the text in isolation― has been the dominant mode for criticism for at least half of the 20th century. Proponents of this theory trace its origins to the central section of Aristotle‘s Poetics, where tragedy is regarded as an object in itself, and where the work's internal elements (plot, character, thought, diction, melody and spectacle, in order of importance) are described as working together in perfect unison to produce in the audience a ―catharsis‖ of pity and fear. As Abrams stated above that nothing exists other than universe, text, author and audience, any form of theory must fit into one of these four categories. Let‘s see these four critical into details. Abrams clearly identifies himself as a critical theorist, not a philosopher, not a psychologist, not a scientist. From his perspective, the purpose and function of critical theory is not to discover some "verifiable truth" but to "establish principles enabling us to justify, order, and clarify our interpretation and appraisal of the aesthetic. 10 11  Short Story Analysis A short story is a short work of fiction. Fiction, as you know, is prose writing about imagined events and characters. Prose writing differs from poetry in that it does not depend on verses, meters or rhymes for its organization and presentation. Novels are another example of fictional prose and are much longer than short stories. Some short stories, however, can be quite long. If a short story is a long one, say fifty to one hundred pages, we call it a novella. American literature contains some of the world's best examples of the short story. Readers around the world enjoy the finely crafted stories of American writers such as O. Henry, Stephen Crane, Jack London, Mark Twain and Edgar Allen Poe. What makes these authors such remarkable short story writers? They are true masters at combining the key elements that go into every great short story. The following guide and questions may help you:  Theme 12 The theme is the main idea, lesson, or message in the short story. It may be an abstract idea about the human condition, society, or life. The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea. It is the author's meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. Theme is a hidden element, but incredibly important. Themes can be universal, meaning they are understood by readers no matter what culture or country the readers are in. Common themes include coming of age, circle of life, prejudice, greed, good vs. evil, etc. Some simple examples of common themes from literature are: - Appearances are deceptive - Love is blind - Don't judge a book by its cover  Characterization There are two meanings for the word character: 1) The person in a work of fiction. Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and Protagonist Short stories use few characters. One character is clearly central to the story with all major events having some importance to this character - he/she is the PROTAGONIST. The oppose of the main character is called the ANTAGONIST. 13 2) The characteristics of a person. In order for a story to seem real to the reader its characters must seem real. Characterization is the information the author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways: a) his/her physical appearance b) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams c) what he/she does or does not do d) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her Characterization: The characters in the story are the people or animals that author uses to represent various events and actions. Characters can be described as static or developing. Static, also called flat, means the character stays the same throughout the story. They do not change. Developing, also called dynamic, means the character changes. The change may impact the character‘s beliefs, attitudes, or actions. The change may be small or large. Flat characters do not play important roles in the stories. They often have only one or two traits with little description about them. On the other hand, the round characters play an important role, often the lead roles in stories. They are complex, dimensional, and well-developed.  Setting Setting is a description of where and when the story takes place. In a short story there are fewer settings compared to a novel. The time is more limited. Ask yourself the following questions: 14 How is the setting created? Consider the following:  When was the story written?  Does it take place in the present, the past, or the future?  How does the time period affect the language and events.  The weather such as cloudy, sunny, windy, snow, or rain, etc.  The time of year, particularly the seasons: fall, winter, summer, spring.  The historical period such as what century or decade the story takes place.  The geographical location including the city, state, country, and possibly even the universe, if the writer is writing science fiction.  What role does setting play in the story? Is it an important part of the plot or theme? Or is it just a backdrop against which the action takes place? Setting can function as a main force that the characters encounter, such as a tornado or flood, or a setting can play a minor role. Setting impacts characters through showing:  The skills they've developed to survive  The tools they'll have (weapons, money, clothing, transportation)  The presuppositions your character brings into the story (religion, psychology, philosophy, educational assumptions, culture, all of which have a lot to do with the way your characters respond to stimuli) 15  Plot The plot is the main sequence of events that make up the story. In short stories the plot is usually centered around one experience or significant moment. Consider the following questions:  What is the most important event?  How is the plot structured? Is it linear, chronological or does it move around? Plot is the order of events in the story. The plot usually follows a particular structure called Freytag‘s Pyramid. Gustav Freytag, a German playwright who lived during the 1800s, identified this structure. Freytag‘s Pyramid has five parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement, also known as resolution. 16 1. FREYTAG’S PYRAMID: EXPOSITION Your story has to start somewhere, and in Freytag‘s Pyramid, it starts with the exposition. This part of the story primarily introduces the major fictional elements – the setting, characters, style, etc. In the exposition, the writer‘s sole focus is on building the world in which the story‘s conflict happens. The length of your exposition depends on the complexity of the story‘s conflict, the extent of the world being written, and the writer‘s own personal preference. Use this part of the story to draw readers in. Make your fictional world as real as this one. Your exposition should end with the ―inciting incident‖ – the event that starts the main conflict of the story. 2. FREYTAG’S PYRAMID: RISING ACTION The rising action explores the story‘s conflict up until its climax. Often, things ―get worse‖ in this part of the story: someone makes a wrong decision, the antagonist hurts the protagonist, new characters further complicate the plot, etc. For many stories, rising action takes up the most amount of pages. However, while this part of the book explores the story‘s conflict and complications, the rising action should investigate much more than just the story‘s plot. In rising action, the reader often gains access to key pieces of backstory. As the conflict unfolds, the reader should learn more about the characters‘ motives, the world of the story, the themes being explored, and you may want to foreshadow the climax as well. 17 Finally, when you look back at the story‘s rising action, it should be clear how each plot point connects to the story‘s climax and aftermath. But first, let‘s write the climax. 3. FREYTAG’S PYRAMID: CLIMAX Of course, every part of your story is important, but if there‘s one part where you really want to stick the landing, it‘s the climax. Here, the story‘s conflict peaks and we learn the fate of the main characters. A lot of writers enter the climax of their story believing that it needs to be short, fast, and action-packed. While some stories might require this style of climax, there‘s no strict formula when it comes to climax writing. Think of the climax as the ―turning‖ point in the story – the central conflict is addressed in a way that cannot be undone. Whether the climax is only one scene or several chapters is up to you, but remember that your climax isn‘t just the turning point in the story‘s plot structure, but also its themes and ideas. This is your opportunity to comment on whatever concept is driving your story‘s narrative, giving the reader an emotional takeaway. Note: for playwrights, the climax is usually the middle act, though of course not every theatrical production follows the rules. 4. FREYTAG’S PYRAMID: FALLING ACTION In falling action, the writer explores the aftermath of the climax. Do other conflicts arise as a result? How does the climax comment on the story‘s central themes? How do the characters react to the irreversible changes made by the climax? 18 The story‘s falling action is often the trickiest part to write. The writer must start to tie up loose ends from the main conflict, explore broader concepts and themes, and push the story towards some form of a resolution while still keeping the focus on the climax and its aftermath. If the rising action pushes the story away from ―normal,‖ the falling action is a return to a ―new normal,‖ though rising and falling action look dramatically different. At the same time, the story must still engage the reader. When writing the story‘s falling action, be sure to expand on the world of the story, the mysteries that lie within that world, and whatever else makes your story compelling. 5. FREYTAG’S PYRAMID: RESOLUTION/DENOUEMENT How do you end a story? One of the most frustrating parts of writing is figuring out where the narrative ends. Theoretically, the story can continue on forever, especially in the aftermath of a life-altering climax, or even if the story is set in an alternate world. The resolution of the story involves tying up the loose ends of the climax and falling action. Sometimes, this means following the story‘s aftermath to a chilling conclusion—the protagonist dies, the antagonist escapes, a fatal mistake has fatal consequences, etc. Other times, the resolution ends on a lighter note. Maybe the protagonist learns from their mistakes, starts a new life, or else forgives and rectifies whatever incited the story‘s conflict. Either way, use the resolution to continue 19  your thoughts on the story‘s themes, and give the reader something to think about after the last word is read. Some writers also use the term ―denouement‖ when discussing the resolution. A denouement [day-new-mawn] refers to the last event that ties up the story‘s loose ends, sometimes expressed in the story‘s epilogue or closing scene.  Climax The climax is the point of greatest tension or intensity in the short story. It is the point where events take a major turn as the story races towards its conclusion. It is helpful to consider climax as a three-fold phenomenon: 1) the main character receives new information 2) accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it) 3) acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not he/she gains his objective).  Conflict Conflict is essential to plot. Without conflict there is no plot. Within a short story there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones. Conflict or tension is usually the heart of the short story and is 20 related to the main character. In a short story there is usually one main struggle. The two types of conflict are: 1) External - A struggle with a force outside one's self. 2) Internal - A struggle within one's self; a person must make some decision, overcome pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc. Conflict is the struggle between two entities. The main character, also known as the protagonist, encounters a conflict with the antagonist, which is an adversary. The conflict may be one of the following kinds: external  Character vs. character  Character vs. nature or natural forces  Character vs. society, culture, ideas, practices, or customs of other people.  Character vs. the circumstances of life facing him/her.  Style Style: The manner in which an author expresses himself or herself in writing. The language that the authors use to convey their thoughts. What kinds of words are used? How are the words arranged? What are the structure and organization of writing? Is it in letter form, does it have paragraphs separating main ideas? Are there lots of dialogues or just one long straight narrative? What 21 does the title of the story tell you about what to expect? What Kind of grammar is used? What punctuation style do the authors use? Figurative language. Are there lots of imagery? Are there flashbacks and foreshadowing used? Are there lots of literary devices used? Various literary devices help convey meaning or create a mood. Look for these in a story to identify key points and their contribution to the author‘s overall meaning. The following are a few common literary devices. Allusion. An indirect reference to another artistic work or person, event, or place. The author makes the allusion with the intention that the well-known object will create an association with the new object in the reader‘s mind. Foreshadowing. The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in a literary work. Irony. An implied contradiction between what is said and what is meant. Irony is used to suggest the difference between appearance and reality and between expectation and fulfillment. There are three kinds of irony: verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else. what is said is actually the opposite of what is meant/intended. Verbal irony occurs when a narrator or character says one thing and means something else. 22 dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that the characters don‘t know. It is also the contrast between what a character or narrator says and what a reader knows to be true. situational irony is a contradiction between the expected result and the actual result or between appearance and reality, or between expectation and fulfillment, or between what is and what would seem appropriate. Symbolism. The use of an object or action to mean something more than its literal meaning. Authors use symbolism to convey messages poetically or indirectly, through their stories, making them more interesting and complex pieces. Symbolism is depicted using a physical object or even a person to be an abstract idea. For example, a dove represents love and peace and a storm represents hostility and turmoil.  Narrator and Point of view The point of view of a story is usually the angle from which the author tells his or her story. It is usually expressed in either the first person, second person, or third person. In the first person point of view, the author or narrator tells his or her story; it is mostly used in autobiographical or eyewitness reports. The second person point of view is rarely used in narratives. The third person point of view can be expressed in either third person limited or omniscient. In the third person limited, the narrator is usually not included as a character in the story. He or 23 she is detached from the story; however, he or she is able to narrate the story based on what can be determined from one character in the story. In the third person omniscient, the character is fully involved in the story. He or she is able to see everything that is going on in the minds of the characters and is able to tell the movement of the characters as they progress from stage to stage. Third-person limited means that the narrator limits him/herself by being able to be in one character‘s thoughts. Whereas, third- person omniscient means the narrator has unlimited ability to be in various character‘s thoughts. Writing in third-person point of view removes readers from the story because of the pronouns he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, they, them, and theirs. 24 25  "The Story of An Hour" Kate Chopin (1894) Knowing that Mrs. Mallard was afflicted with a heart trouble, great care was taken to break to her as gently as possible the news of her husband's death. It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Her husband's friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with Brently Mallard's name leading the list of "killed." He had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message. She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister's arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would have no one follow her. There stood, facing the open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair. Into this she sank, pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul. She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious 26 breath of rain was in the air. In the street below a peddler was crying his wares. The notes of a distant song which some one was singing reached her faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves. There were patches of blue sky showing here and there through the clouds that had met and piled one above the other in the west facing her window. She sat with her head thrown back upon the cushion of the chair, quite motionless, except when a sob came up into her throat and shook her, as a child who has cried itself to sleep continues to sob in its dreams. She was young, with a fair, calm face, whose lines bespoke repression and even a certain strength. But now there was a dull stare in her eyes, whose gaze was fixed away off yonder on one of those patches of blue sky. It was not a glance of reflection, but rather indicated a suspension of intelligent thought. There was something coming to her and she was waiting for it, fearfully. What was it? She did not know; it was too subtle and elusive to name. But she felt it, creeping out of the sky, reaching toward her through the sounds, the scents, the color that filled the air. Now her bosom rose and fell tumultuously. She was beginning to recognize this thing that was approaching to possess her, and she was striving to beat it back with her will--as powerless as her two white slender hands would have been. When she abandoned 27 herself a little whispered word escaped her slightly parted lips. She said it over and over under the breath: "free, free, free!" The vacant stare and the look of terror that had followed it went from her eyes. They stayed keen and bright. Her pulses beat fast, and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body. She did not stop to ask if it were or were not a monstrous joy that held her. A clear and exalted perception enabled her to dismiss the suggestion as trivial. She knew that she would weep again when she saw the kind, tender hands folded in death; the face that had never looked save with love upon her, fixed and gray and dead. But she saw beyond that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her absolutely. And she opened and spread her arms out to them in welcome. There would be no one to live for during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature. A kind intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime as she looked upon it in that brief moment of illumination. And yet she had loved him--sometimes. Often she had not. What did it matter! What could love, the unsolved mystery, count for in the face of this possession of self-assertion which she suddenly recognized as the strongest impulse of her being! "Free! Body and soul free!" she kept whispering. 28 Josephine was kneeling before the closed door with her lips to the key hold, imploring for admission. "Louise, open the door! I beg; open the door--you will make yourself ill. What are you doing, Louise? For heaven's sake open the door." "Go away. I am not making myself ill." No; she was drinking in a very elixir of life through that open window. Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days, and all sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long. She arose at length and opened the door to her sister's importunities. There was a feverish triumph in her eyes, and she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory. She clasped her sister's waist, and together they descended the stairs. Richards stood waiting for them at the bottom. Someone was opening the front door with a latchkey. It was Brently Mallard who entered, a little travel-stained, composedly carrying his grip-sack and umbrella. He had been far from the scene of the accident, and did not even know there had been one. He stood amazed at Josephine's piercing cry; at Richards' quick motion to screen him from the view of his wife. When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease-- of the joy that kills. 29  Hilary’s aunt – by Cyril Hare Hilary Smith belonged to a good family, and his father never hesitated to mention this fact. The actual age of the family was doubtful, but Mr. Smith behaved like a man of the past. His ideas and manners were those of the Victorian age. Unfortunately Hilary himself had some unimportant trouble with the bank about a few cheques. It seemed a very slight matter to the young man, but not so to his father. Hilary was sent off to Australia without delay. Mr. Smith knew little about that place , but he understood one thing. It was a convenient country for those who did not like the customs of old England. Hilary did not like Australia, and Australia did not like Hilary. He therefore took the earliest opportunity of returning to England. He could not , of course, earn enough money to buy a ticket. So he had to wait until his father and his brother died. They fortunately did this at the same time. After that he received all the money which belonged to the good old family. There was not a great deal of money, and Hilary soon spent it. (The old family had not been able to get much in recent years).When all the money had been spent, Hilary could do one of two things. He could die or work. The thought of neither of these gave him any pleasure. Then he remembered that he was not alone in the world. He possessed an aunt. 30 She was his father‘s only sister, and he knew little about her. His father‘s ancient ideas were responsible for this unfortunate fact. When her name was mentioned , he never looked very pleased. ― Your aunt Mary brought no honour to the family‖ , he said. Hilary, of course, tried to discover what she had done. It seemed that she had failed to marry a nobleman. Instead, she had chosen a husband who was connected with ―trade‖. No old family could bear that sort of thing, of course. As soon as she became ―Mrs. Prothero‖ , her brother considered her dead. Later on , her husband died and left her a lot of money; but that did not bring her back to life in her brother‘s opinion. Hilary discovered his aunt‘s address by talking to the family lawyer. Fortunately she had remained faithful to him even after she fell. So Hilary‘s sun shone again, and the old lady seemed to like him. When he was feeling honest, he could talk attractively. He frequently visited his aunt‘s house; and soon he was living comfortably in the building which the profits of trade had provided. Hilary was very relieved when he was able to move into the house. He felt like a sailor who had just reached harbour. He had only about sixpence in his pocket. One thing was immediately clear: his aunt was seriously ill. She acted bravely, but she was slowly dying. He had a private talk with her doctor which alarmed him greatly. The doctor told him that nothing could cure the old woman. She might perhaps live for some time, but the end was certain. 31 ―Her condition may become worse at any moment‖, the doctor said. ―When it has passed a certain stage, she won‘t want to live. No kind person will want her to live either.‖ Hilary was very annoyed. Fate had found a home for him, and was now going to throw him out of it. Once again he would have to live in the hard world alone. There was only one thing that he could do. He chose an evening when his aunt was feeling better than usual. Then, very gently , he asked for details of her will. When she heard the word ―will‖ , his aunt laughed loudly. ―Have I made a will?‖ she said. ―Yes, of course I have. I left all my money to – now , what was it ? To whom did I leave it ? Some religious people in China, I think. Or were they in Polynesia ? I can‘t remember. The lawyer, will tell you about it. He still has the will, I suppose. I was very religious when I was a girl.‖ ―Did you make this will when you were a girl, Aunt Mary?‖ ―Yes, when I was twenty-one. Your grandfather told me to make a will. He believed that everyone ought to do that. I had no money then, of course, and so my will wasn‘t very useful.‖ Hilary had been filled with sorrow when he heard the first details; but now his eyes were happier again. ―Didn‘t you make another will when you were married?‖ His aunt shook her head ―No, there was no need. I had nothing and John had everything. Then, after John died, I had a lot of money but no relations. What could I do with the money? Perhaps I ought to talk to my lawyer again.‖ 32 She looked at Hilary with steady eyes Hilary said that there was no need to hurry. Then he changed the subject. On the next day he went to the public library and examined a certain book. It told him what he already believed. When a woman marries, an earlier will loses its value. a new will must be made. If no new will is made, the money goes to the nearest relation. Hilary knew that he was his aunt‘s only relation. His future was safe. After a few months had passed, Hilary‘s problems became serious. The change in his aunt‘s condition showed that the doctor had been right. She went to bed and stayed there. It seemed certain that she would never get up again. At the same time Hilary badly needed money. He had expensive tastes, and owed a lot of money to shopkeepers. They trusted him because his aunt was rich; but their bills were terrible. Unfortunately his aunt was now so ill that he could not easily talk to her. She did not want to discuss money matters at all. She was in great pain and could hardly sleep; so she became angry when money was mentioned. In the end they had a quarrel about the small amount of ten pounds. She accused him of trying to get her money. Hilary was not very angry. He understood that Aunt Mary was a sick woman. She was behaving strangely because she was ill. He remembered the doctor‘s words , and began to wonder about a new problem. Was it kind to want his aunt to live any longer ? 33 Was it not better for her to die now? He thought about this for a long time. When he went to bed, he was still thinking. His aunt gave him some news in the morning. She told him that she was going to send for Mr. Blenkinsop. So she was going to make a new will ! Hilary was not sure that a new will would help him. She might leave all her money to someone else. What could he do then? He reached a clear decision. He must do a great kindness to the poor old woman. Every night she took some medicine to make her sleep. Hilary decided to double the amount. He did not need to say anything to her about it. He could just put her to sleep forever. He found that it was a very easy thing to do. His aunt even seemed to help his plans. An old servant had been nursing her, and she told this woman to go out. So the servant went off to attend to her own affairs. She was told to prepare the medicine before she went out. Then Hilary could give it to his aunt at the proper time. It was easy for Hilary. He had only to put some more medicine into the glass. If anything awkward happened, he could easily explain. He could say that he had not understood the plan. He had not known that the servant had put the medicine in. So he had put the proper amount into the glass. It was unfortunate, of course. The total amount was too great. But who would suspect dear Hilary? 34 His aunt took the glass from his hand with a grateful look. ―Thank you, I want, more than anything , to sleep, and never to wake up again. That is my greatest wish‖ She looked at him steadily. ― Is that what you wish , Hilary ? I have given you your chance. Forgive me if I am suspecting you wrongly. Sick people get these ideas, you know. If I am alive tomorrow, I shall do better for you. My lawyer is coming here, and I shall make a will in your favour. If I die tonight, you ‗ll get nothing. Some people in China will get all the money. I ought , perhaps, to explain. John Prothero never married me. He already had a wife and couldn‘t marry me again. That made your foolish father very angry with me … No, Hilary , don‘t try to take the glass away. If you do that , I shall know; and I don‘t want to know. Good-night, Hilary.‖ Then, very carefully, she raised the glass to her lips and drank. 35