Inorganic Chemistry PDF

Inorganic Chemistry Chemistry – study of matter Matter – anything that occupy space and has mass. Composition Structure Changes that matter undergoes (Properties à Physical & Chemical) Energy associated in such changes Mass – refers to the amount of matter present i...

Inorganic Chemistry Chemistry – study of matter Matter – anything that occupy space and has mass. Composition Structure Changes that matter undergoes (Properties à Physical & Chemical) Energy associated in such changes Mass – refers to the amount of matter present in a material Weight – mass X pull of gravity Classifying matter: Origin Organic – living things Inorganic – nonliving things Composition Pure – has unique set of properties Elements – metal, metalloid, nonmetal Compounds – acid, base, salt, oxide à inorganic or organic Mixture Homogeneous – one phase (True solution) Heterogeneous – two or more phases Colloids Coarse dispersion (suspension) States (Phases) Solid, liquid, gas, plasma Matter Properties Physical – observable and measurable Intensive – depends on the identity of substance not the amount Ø Color, Solubility, Boiling point, Melting point, etc. Extensive – depends on the amount of matter present Ø Mass, Volume, Length, etc. Chemical – ability of a substance to change into another substance / ability to resist change Flammability, corrosion, oxidation resistance, etc. Changes (can be brought by physical agent (heat), + other substance) Physical – phase change Chemical – change in intensive properties ATOMIC STRUCTURE Democritus (Gk.) – a-tomos (indivisible particle) John Dalton – atomic theory J.J. Thomson – “plum pudding” model, atom contains (+) & (-) particles E. Rutherford – α particles scattering on gold foil N. Bohr – “planetary model” E. Schrodinger – “electron cloud” ATOMIC STRUCTURE John Dalton – atomic theory (1808) Main points 1. Everything is composed of atoms, which are the indivisible building blocks of matter and cannot be destroyed. 2. All atoms of any one element are identical. 3. The atoms of different elements vary in size and mass. 4. Compounds are produced through different whole-number combinations of atoms. 5. A chemical reaction results in the rearrangement of atoms in the reactant and product compounds. No change in the identity of atom. ATOMIC STRUCTURE J.J. Thomson – “plum pudding” model, atom contains (+) & (-) particles Rutherford – α particles scattering on gold foil ATOMIC STRUCTURE ATOMIC STRUCTURE (modern description of electron in an atom) Quantum numbers A. Principal (n) – approximate measure of the size of electron cloud. values: 1, 2, 3, 4,….. (positive integer) corresponding to the K, L, M, N,…. B. Azimuthal / Angular Momentum (l) – related to the shape of electron cloud, indicating if it is spherical, dumbbell shaped, or of more complex geometry. values: n-1 so 0, 1, 2, 3,….. corresponding to the s, p, d, f,…. C. Magnetic (ml) – related to the orientation of electron cloud in space. values: 0 for n=0, -1,0,+1 for n=1, -2,-1,0,+1+2 for n=2 D. Spin (ms) – gives the orientation of the magnetic component of an electron. Direction of the spin or rotation values: +1/2, -1/2 Principles: Aufbau (“building up”) Ølowest-energy orbitals filled up first Pauli’s Exclusion Principle ØNo two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers ØOnly two electrons can occupy an orbital and must be in opposite spin. Hund’s rule ØDegenerate orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle ØIt is impossible to determine simultaneously the momentum and position of an electron. Fundamental particles of an ATOM Particle Symbol Charge Mass Discovery Proton p+ + 1.0073 u Ernest Rutherford Electron e̅ - 0.0005 u Joseph John Thomson Neutron no 0 1.0087 u James Chadwick The mass of the atom is taken from the sum of the masses of proton and neutron. The number of proton is represented by the atomic number of the element in the periodic table. The number of proton = number of electron in a neutral atom. The symbol 12C6 means The mass of C is 12 u Its atomic number is 6 (number of proton is 6 as well as electron) Existence of ISOTOPES – 12C6, 13C6, 14C6 The mass of an atom is taken from the average mass of its isotopes Ave. At. Mass = Σ mass of isotopes X relative abundance Isobar (atoms with the same mass number) Ex. 14Z6 and 14Z7 Isotone (atoms with the same number of neutron) Ex. 15Z7 and 16Z 8 Electronic configuration Knowing the electron distribution in an atom, you can have idea about the position of the elements in the periodic table ØPeriod number – ØGroup / Family – ØValence electron – Periodic Table Development Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier – First true periodic table Johann Dobereiner – Triad Octaves of Newland 1. chlorine, bromine, and iodine 2. calcium, strontium, and barium 3. sulfur, selenium, and tellurium 4. lithium, sodium, and potassium Newland – Octaves Meyer and Mendeleev – Physical and chemical properties are periodic function of their atomic weights. Henri Moseley – periodic properties based on atomic number  p- block d- block s- block f- block  GROUP IA ALKALI METALS +1 The most reactive of all metallic elements. The reactivity increases as atomic radius increases.  GROUP IIA ALKALINE EARTH METALS +2 GROUP IIIA BORON GROUP (Icosagen) +3 GROUP IVA CARBON GROUP (Crystallogen) +4 GROUP VA NITROGEN GROUP (Pnictogen) +3 GROUP VIA OXYGEN GROUP (Chalcogen) +4, -2 GROUP VIIA HALOGEN GROUP -1 Most electronegative. GROUP VIIIA NOBLE GAS GROUP INERT GASES 0 TRANSITION ELEMENTS Variable valences d sublevel is being filled LANTHANIDE SERIES Rare earth metals f sublevel is being filled.  ACTINIDE SERIES Heavy rare earth metals f sublevel is being filled. Bridge Elements Diagonal Relationship The first member of the family more closely resembles in chemical property the second member of the adjacent group to the right PERIODIC TRENDS qATOMIC SIZE- distance between the nucleus and the electrons. qMETALLIC PROPERTY- the ability of the atom to donate electrons qIONIZATION ENERGY- the energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom. qELECTRON AFFINITY- the ability of the atom to accept an electron. qELECTRONEGATIVITY- a measure of the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a chemical bond.  Note : Atomic site ) K is bigger than Kr because Kr has many electrons. More attraction causing them to shrink left to right → decrease top to bottom → increase ↓ _  - t left to right increase - - top to bottom ← decrease  Is 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s Name the element with these last 2p3p 4ps Jp 6p 3d 4d lid led electronic configuration 4f If 6f # 54 ( ✗ e) 1725£ 2Pᵗ3s£3pb4s2 § 5p6 - period Which of the following atoms is the " 4p65s24d " 3d ' sp = 54. 5 family = noble gas Hq 52 § 2s2 - valence : 8 biggest? Valence % 8 He period pb A. K = 5 § 3p4 - family = noble gas Ap pb B. Pt Atomic * 48 Kr " § 6p5 - P C. Cs Ye p ' § 2p1 - D. Rn  Ions – are charge atoms. Formed when atom gain or lost electrons. Cations monoatomic à e.g. K +, Mg +2, Al+3, etc. polyatomic à e.g. NH4+, SbO+, etc. Polyatomic ions are called Anions radicals monoatomic à Cl-, O-2, etc. polyatomic à sulfate, chromate, etc. Allotropes – some atoms of the same element can link together to form different substance with different properties. Allotropes of C à diamond and graphite Allotropes of O à [O] is nascent, O2 is molecular and O3 is called ozone Compound – 2 or more atoms chemically combined Types Organic or Inorganic Molecular or Ionic (types of bond) Acid, base, salt or oxide Hydrated or anhydrous Electrolyte or non-electrolyte Formula writing Nomenclature Classical – ex. cupric sulfate CuSO4 Stock system – ex. copper (II) sulfate Laws on Chemical Combinations Law of Conservation of Matter (Lavoisier’s Law) Law of Definite proportions or (Law of Definite Composition / Law of Constant Composition / Proust’s Law) a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio and does not depend on its source and method of preparation. Law of Multiple Proportions (Dalton’s Law) When two elements combine with each other to form more than one compound, the weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small whole number. Laws on Chemical Combinations Law of Combining Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law) when gases are produced or combine in a chemical reaction, they do so in simple ratio by volume given that all the gases are at same temperature and pressure. This law can be considered as another form of law of definite proportions. The only difference between these two laws of chemical combination is that Gay Lussac’s Law is stated with respect to volume while law of definite proportions is stated with respect to mass. brass ( volume Avogadro’s Law under same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volume of all the gases contain equal number of molecules. This implies that 2 litres of hydrogen will have the same number of molecules as 2 litres of oxygen given that both the gases are at same temperature and pressure. equal volume / gases) = equal * of molecules Forces of attraction INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES (forces that hold the atoms together within a single molecule) 1- Ionic bond – transfer of e- lit ) 5 Covalent bond – sharing of e- ( as) Polar – unequal sharing IP.tn Nonpolar – equal sharing IN E). } intra INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (forces that exist between separate molecules) Van der Waals Keesom (dipole-dipole) ex. HCl ---HCl 1K D. D). Debye (induced dipole-dipole) ex. O2 ---H2O ID IDD). London dispersion (induced dipole-induced dipole) ex. HC attraction to HC ILD IDID) - Ion-dipole – charge ion + polar molecule (salt & water) Ion-induced dipole – charge ion + nonpolar molecule (I2 + KI) H-bond – Hydrogen + electronegative atoms  Ex. How many moles of NaCl (58.44g/mole) are there in 85 grams of NaCl? Calculate the # of molecules in 125g of nad ) 1m01 Mall 6- 02×23 Partido 1023 ( ) ( Calculations Involving Formulas ig.gg = 1. ya ✗ molecules 1 MOI 58.44g had Molecular Mass – sum of the atomic masses of all the elements in a molecule. Ex. What is the molecular mass of CO2? Formula Mass – sum of the atomic masses of all the elements in a formula unit. Used for compounds whose constituent particles are ions. Ex. What is the formula mass of NaCl? Number of Moles in a given mass (volume) of compound. Ex. How many moles of NaCl (58.44g/mole) are there in 85 grams of NaCl? Ex. Calculate the number of moles present in 25 mL sample of CO2(44.01). Number of particles (ions, atoms, molecule) in a given mole or mass. Avogadro’s number – 1 mole of any substance = 6.022 X 1023 = 22.4L gas (STP) Calculations Involving Formulas Percentage composition Ex. Calculate the % C in H2C2O4. Emperical Formula – simplest positive integer ratio of atoms present in a compound. Ex. What is the empirical formula of a compound containing 52.92% Al and 47.07% O? Al=26.98 O=15.99 Molecular Formula – gives the total (actual) number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a substance. Ex. The percentage composition of H and C in certain hydrocarbon was found to be 7.7% and 92.3% respectively. What is its Molecular formula if its mass is 78.1 u? Types of Reaction 1. Decomposition Ex. heating 2NaHCO3 à Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2. 2. Single displacement / Substitution Ex. 2HCl + Mg à MgCl2 + H2↗ Know the position of different metal / non-metal in electrochemical series. 3. Double displacement / Double decomposition / Metathesis Ex. NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O 1. Combination / Addition Ex. CaO2 + H2O à Ca(OH)2 2. Rearrangement (heating NH4CNO à H2N-CO-NH2 urea) 3. Redox – when there is a change in the oxidation state of element in reactants. GEROA and LEORA, calculation of the valence of central atom in a ternary compound. Evidences of chemical change Evolution of gas Formation of precipitate Change in intensive properties – color, odor, taste Generation of energy – light, electricity, heat, mechanical Absorption / liberation of heat Calculations Involving Chemical Equation Calculations of the amount of reactant / product in a chemical reactions (mole, mass, volume) Percentage yield Limiting reagents Physical Chemistry topics Thermodynamics Electrochemistry Intermolecular forces, Liquids and Solids Gaseous State of Matter (KMT) Chemical Kinetics Solutions; Colloids Coordination compound  Multiplier 0.25 ✗ 4 }. Physical Chemistry topics 0.33×1 = whole number 0-5 ✗ 2 Thermodynamics Electrochemistry Intermolecular Empirical forces, Formula and Molecular Liquids and Solids formula Gaseous State of Matter (KMT) Chemical Kinetics Solutions; 60 amu What. Colloids is its Coordination compound b- got HCl Physical Calculate the Mgclgn Chemistry is made to produced 1011-12 topics react that with will be Bg Mg.. 211-01 t mg 1011-7, → My Gat 2hrs0 5g Thermodynamics 3g Find the Electrochemistry limiting reagent : Intermolecular forces, Liquids and Solids " " "" " " ( " 58.31 9 / 369%1 ) / jm%↑É↑ ) 1mn my cow ) ' ' "" m 5g Ha Gaseous State of Matter (KMT).. so -31g Chemical = (5) (58-31) Kinetics = 4- 9 g Mg Cly Solutions; Colloids 4. 05g My Colt ) = , Coordination compound ↳ limiting reagent µ, , , , µ mg, , , , , , mum , , , , g, mg , , , , , , I not 1011-12 58.31g Mg I not My Ua  lead chromate lyellvn ) Group 1 Physical Chemistry topics cation - ( insoluble chloride ZNUO zinc uranyl acetate ) Agd da - Pb , , Hga ( 12 L sodium / special precipitant ) most most 81. / use not Hao) Thermodynamics chromate ingot Amphoteric OH L test yellow) / Pb I Electrochemistry can both acid act base as solubility Rules an and Sn l Agt t Hd Intermolecular forces, Liquids and Solids Sb soluble in excess. (Yellow ) Cr Gaseous State of Matter (KMT) Agut HI Al l while Au 7h Chemical Kinetics Solutions; Colloids Coordination compound INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY WET REACTIONS Groupings of Cations and Anions  Classification of cations Distinguishing Group Group reagent Ions features I Dilute HCl Ag+, Pb++, Hg2++ Ppt as Chlorides (Silver group) II HCl + H2S Hg++, Pb++, Ppt as Sulphides in (Acid sulphide gp) Bi+++, Cu++, acid medium Cd++, Sn++, As+++, Sb+++, Sn++++ III NH4OH + NH4Cl Al+++, Cr+++, PPt as Hydroxides (Iron group) Fe+++ IV NH4OH + NH4Cl Ni++, CO++, Ppt as Sulphides in (Alkaline sulphide +H2S Mn++, Zn++ alkaline medium gp) V NH4OH + NH4Cl Ba++, Sr++, Ca++ Ppt as Carbonates. (Alkaline earth + (NH4)2CO3 group) VI No Mg++, Na+, K+, Ions not pptd in (Alkali metal group) group reagent NH4+ previous groups. 2  Classification of cations Group OF Anions Distinguishing Thiosulfate Group Group I / Aid Gas ) Group Group reagent Bicarbonate , Sulfide Ions Sulfite Carbonate Hypochlorite features , > , , , I Dilute HCl Ag+, Pb++, Hg2++ Ppt as Chlorides (Silver group) II HCl + H2S Hg++, Pb++, Ppt as Sulphides in (Acid sulphide gp) Bi+++, Cu++, acid medium Cd++, Sn++, As+++, Sb+++, Sn++++ III NH4OH + NH4Cl Al+++, Cr+++, PPt as Hydroxides (Iron group) Fe+++ IV NH4OH + NH4Cl Ni++, CO++, Ppt as Sulphides in (Alkaline sulphide +H2S Mn++, Zn++ alkaline medium gp) V NH4OH + NH4Cl Ba++, Sr++, Ca++ Ppt as Carbonates. (Alkaline earth + (NH4)2CO3 group) VI No Mg++, Na+, K+, Ions not pptd in (Alkali metal group) group reagent NH4+ previous groups. 2  GROUPS OF ANIONS Group I (Acid Gas Group) Bicarbonate, Sulfide, Carbonate, Sulfite, Thiosulfate, Hypochlorite They produce gas when decomposed by acid. Group II (Barium-Calcium Group) Arsenite, Arsenate, Sulfate, Phosphate, Chromate, Tartrate, Oxalate, Citrate All are precipitated by barium chloride or calcium chloride.  Group III (Silver Nitrate Group) Ferrocyanide, Ferricyanide, Thiocyanate, Cyanide, Halides They are precipitated by silver nitrate in the presence of dilute nitric acid.  Group IV Nitrate, Perchlorate, Formate They are all soluble in water.  SOLUBILITY RULES § Almost all group I-A and ammonium salts are soluble in water. § All nitrates, acetates, chlorates and perchlorates are soluble in water. § All common chlorides are soluble, except AgCl, PbCl2 and Hg2Cl2. § Common bromides and iodides show approximately the same solubility property as chlorides, but there are some exceptions. – As the halide ions increase in size, the solubility of their slightly soluble compounds decrease. § Fluorides are water soluble except, MgF2, CaF2, SrF2, BaF2 and PbF2. § All sulfates are soluble except BaSO4 and PbSO4; CaSO4, SrSO4, HgSO4, and Ag2SO4 are moderately soluble. § All sulfides are insoluble, except those of alkaline earth metals, alkali metals and ammonium ion. § All oxides and hydroxide are insoluble except alkali metal compounds. – Oxides and hydroxides of Ca, Sr and Ba are slightly soluble § All phosphates, carbonates and arsenates are water insoluble except those of alkali metals and ammonium ion. – MgCO3 is moderately soluble Bunsen Flame  Bunsen Flame The lower oxidizing zone (c) is situated on the outer border of b and may be used for the oxidation of substances dissolved in beads of borax, sodium carbonate, or microcosmic salt. The upper oxidizing zone (d) consists of the non- luminous tip of the flame; here a large excess of oxygen is present and the flame is not so hot as at c. The upper reducing zone (e) is at the tip of the inner blue cone and is rich in incandescent carbon; it is especially useful for reducing oxide incrustations to the metal. The lower reducing zone (f) is situated in the inner edge of the mantle next to the blue cone and it is here that the reducing gases mix with the oxygen of the air; it is a less powerful reducing zone than e, and may be employed for the reduction of fused borax and similar beads. Flame Test Flame Test with Cobalt Glass Properties: Ø One valence electron, thus the elements in the group forms +1 ion when they react with non-metals Ø Form white solid hydrides when heated with hydrogen: 2M + H2 ——> 2MH Ø They have high affinity to oxygen (affinity increases with the Atomic wt.) M + O2 ——> MO2 Ø Reacts vigorously with water to form H2 gas M + H2O ——> M2O + H2 Ø Only Lithium reacts with Nitrogen gas Li + N2 ——> Li3N + H2O ——> NH3 + LiOH Ø Their oxides react with water to form a base( the alkalinity of the base produced increases with the atomic radius of the metal) M2O + H2O ——> 2 MOH Ø The alkali metal halides are soluble in water Ø Virtually all the salts of the alkali are water- soluble.  Identification Tests Test for Li+ v Flame test: carmine red flame v Na2HPO4 + NH3 forms white ppt. of Li2NH4PO4 soluble in HCl and will not be reprecipitated with the addition of NH3.  Tests for Na+ vFlame test- bright yellow flame vKH2SbO4 or K2H2SbO7 giving a white ppt. of NaH2SbO4 or Na2H2Sb2O7 vZinc Uranyl Acetate test (ZnUO2(CH3COO)4) giving a pale yellow ppt of NaZn(UO2)3(C2H3O2)9  Tests for K+ vFlame Test- violet flame vCobaltinitrate test( Na3Co(NO2)4) gives yellow ppt of K2NaCo(NO2)4 vTartrate test( H2C4H4O6) gives white ppt. of KHC4H4O6 which upon the addition of NaOH form KNaC4H4O6, Rochelle salt. Ø The three members of the group are employed for ornamental and coinage purposes. Ø They have smaller size than the alkali metals Ø Occur free in nature Ø They are not very active and are displaced by most metals Ø Silver, copper and gold halides are nearly insoluble in water. Ø All of them form complex anions and complex cations with ammonia Ø They are used in the preparation of alloys like Cu forms brass and bronze with Zn and Sn respectively.  IDENTIFICATION TESTS OF IONS Cu+2 Ferrocyanide test(K4Fe(CN)6) – reddish brown ppt of Cu2Fe(CN)6 which is soluble in excess NH3 forming Cu(NH3)4 2+ ion which is a blue solution. Ag+ Chloride test( HCl) –white ppt of AgCl sol in NH3 forming Ag(NH3)2+ which reprecipitates back to AgCl upon addition of HNO3. Ø Has 2 valence electrons, thus forms +2 ions when they react with non-metals. Ø Beryllium is not the only member of the group that forms covalent compounds with non-metals. Ø Reacts with O2 except for Be. M + O2 ——> MO Ø The salts of these metals are not as soluble as the salts of the alkali metals. Ø Many of the salts of this group are hydrated.  Identification Tests of Ions Mg2+ 1. Biphosphate test(Na2HPO4, NH3 and NH4Cl) – white crystalline ppt of MgNH4PO4 2. Hydroxide test (NaOH)- white ppt of Mg(OH)2 which has the capacity of adsorbing colors of dyes. W/ Titan yellow, it will produce a red lake while with p-nitrobenzene azo-resorcinol, a blue lake. W/ quinalizarin, blue ppt. Ca2+ 1. Flame test- brick red o dull red flame 2. Oxalate test(K2C2O4) – white ppt of CaC2O4 insoluble in CH3COOH( which is different from Ba and Sr) Sr2+ 1. Flame Test- crimson red 2. Biphosphate test (Na2HPO4, NH3 and NH4Cl) – white ppt of Sr3(PO4)2 soluble in HCl and re- precipitated back upon addition of NH3 (difference from Li+) 3. Sulfate test (H2SO4)- white ppt of SrSO4. Ba 2+ 1. Flame test- yellowish green 2. Chromate test(K2CrO4) - yellow ppt. insol in CH3COOH (difference from Ca and Sr). 3. H2SO4- white ppt of BaSO4, insol in all acids. Ø Oxides of these metals become less stable to heat as atomic number increases. Ø The chlorides are hydrolyzed with decreasing case in the order Zn, Cd, Hg. Ø Cd and Zn form complex ions with considerable case with Cd having a greater tendency toward coordination. Ø Cd salts are less soluble than the corresponding salts indicating a greater degree of covalency.  General Chemical Reactions M + X2 ——> MX2 2M + O2 ——> 2MO M + 4HNO3(conc) ——> M(NO3) 2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O Zn(OH)2 + 2HCl ——> ZnCl2 + 2H2O Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH ——> Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O  Identification Test for Ions Zn2+ 1. Sulfide test (H2S)- white ppt of ZnS 2. Ferrocyanide test(K4Fe(CN)6)- white ppt of K2Zn3[Fe(CN)6]2 3. Hydroxide test ( white ppt of Zn(OH)2 sol in excess of the reagent forming Zn(OH)4= Cd 2+ 1. Sulfide test- yellow ppt. of CdS insol in Na2S rgt. 2. Ferocyanide test – white ppt of Cd2Fe(CN)6 3. NH3- white ppt of Cd(OH)2 sol in excess of the reagent forming Cd(NH3)4+2 Hg2 2+ 1. Chloride test (HCl) – white ppt of Hg2Cl2 which blackens upon addition of NH3 due to formation of metallic Hg. 2. KI- green ppt of Hg2I2 soluble in excess of the reagent forming K2HgI4 and metallic Hg. Hg2+ 1. Chloride test(HCl) – HgCl2 sol. in water. 2. Reduction test (SnCl2) - white ppt of Hg2Cl2 turning gray due to metallic Hg. 3. Iodide test –red ppt. of HgI2 sol in excess of the reagent forming K2HgI4 Ø B and Al are the most important members of the group in pharmacy. Ø Al- most common metal and the 3rd most common metal in the earth’s crust with O as the first and Si as the second. Ø B is a non-metal Ø The metals of this group are readily oxidized in air. Ø They readily react with halogens and sulfur. Ø Their hydroxides are amphoteric with the exception of B and Tl.  Identification Tests for Ions Al +3 1. NH3 – white gelatinous ppt of Al(OH)3 1. Thernard’s blue test /Charcoal test Co(NO3)2 + NH3 ——>Co(AlO2)2 (blue ash of cobalt meta-aluminate)  BO3-3 1. CH3OH + H2SO4 ——> (CH3)3BO3 green bordered flame of methyl borate 2. Acidic solution of borate will turn turmeric paper brownish red while in basic medium will turn the turmeric paper greenish black ØC is used as a reducing agent in the preparation of many metals. ØC is relatively inert at room temp. but combines with O2 and X2 and with other non-metals. ØGe and Sn are active metals, they displace H from acids and combines with most metals  The Oxides and hydroxides of Sn and Pb are amphoteric. The +4 oxides form stannates (SnO3-2) and plumbates (PbO3-2) upon reaction with a base.  Identification Tests of Ions Pb2+ 1. Chromate test (K2CrO4) – yellow ppt of PbCrO4 2. Chloride test (HCl) – white ppt of PbCl2 soluble in boiling water. Sn 2+ 1. Sulfide test (H2S) – yellow ppt of SnS2 soluble in x’ss S= forming SnS3= CH3COO- - acids will evolve acetic acid characterized by the vinegar-like odor. The product heated with alcohol forms a fruity odor of ethyl acetate. CO3-2 and HCO3 – 1. acids will evolve CO2 by effervescence (bubbling of gas though the liquid) 2. Phenolphthalein- dark pink or red for carbonate and colorless or light pink for bicarbonate ion.  Oxalate tartrate Citrate CaCl2 CaC2O4-white CaC4H4O6 Ca3(C6H5O7)2 ppt. White ppt On boiling Sol in H2O Insoluble soluble soluble AgNO3 Ag miror on Ag mirror on warming boiling Pyridine Emerald Carmine red green solution solution  N and P are both non-metallic As is a metalloid The members of the family forms hydrides analogous to ammonia.  Identification Test for Ions NH4+ 1. Nessler Reagent (Alkaline K2[HgI]4) – orange ppt of HgO. HgNH2I (Iodide of the Millon’s base). 2. Heated with strong alkali-evolution of NH3 detected by its characteristic odor and changes red litmus paper to blue CN- 1. AgNO3- white ppt of AgCN insol in HNO3 2. Hg2(NO3)2- black ppt. of metallic Hg SCN- 1. FeCl3- blood red solution of Fe(SCN)3  Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrate (NO3-) Dil H2SO4 Brown gas of No reaction NO2 Brown ring test FeNOSO4 Brown ring FeSO4 & conc. H2SO4 } Sb+3 1. H2S- orange ppt of Sb2S3 soluble in NaS 2. Al metal – black ppt of metallic Sb insoluble in NaOBr reagent } Bi3+ 1. H2S- brownish black ppt of Bi2S3 insol in Na2S rgt. 2. Na2SnO2- black ppt of metallic Bi  PO4-3 AsO4-3 AsO3-3 AgNO3 Ag3PO4 Ag3AsO4 Ag3AsO3 Yellow ppt Brown ppt Yellow ppt (NH4)2MoO4 (NH4)3PO4. (NH4)3AsO4.1 Negative 12MoO4 2MoO3 Yellow ppt Yellow ppt Magnesia MgNH4PO4 MgNH4AsO4 Negative mixture White ppt White ppt - Includes O, S, Se, Te and Po - The elements are non-metallic except for Po which is a radioactive metal. - Only Oxygen is a gas, the rest are solids at room temperature. - Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. - S- is given the name brimestone/”burning stone”  IDENTIFICATION TESTS S-2 1. Dil H2SO4 evolves H2S gas characterized by its odor of rotten egg. 2. Lead acetate- black ppt of PbS SO3-2 1. Dil H2SO4 evolves SO2 characterized by its odor of burnt sulfur 2. KMnO4 or I2 soln- the solution is decolorized. SO4-2 1. Dil H2SO4- no reaction 2. BaCl2- white ppt of BaSO4 which is insol. In all acids 3. Lead acetate- white ppt of PbSO4 soluble in Ammonium acetate S2O3-2 1. Dil H2SO4 evolves SO2 with the precipitation of yellow sulfur 2. KMnO4 or I2 solution- the solutions are decolorized.  GROUP VI B THE CHROMIUM GROUP ØIncludes Cr, Mo, W and U ØCr has oxidations states of +2,+3 and +6. Mo and W form compounds in which they exhibit +2 to +6 valences. ØOxides of these elements are acidic, Cr(OH)3 is amphoteric and will dissolve in acid to form Cr(III) or in alkali to for CrO2  IDENTIFICATION TESTS Cr+3 1. NaOH- grayish green ppt of Cr(OH)3 which will dissolve in excess of the alkali to form green solution, NaCrO2. When an oxidizing agent like Na2O2 is added it turns yellow due to Na2CrO4. CrO4-2 1. BaCl2- yellow ppt of BaCrO4 2. AgNO3- brownish red ppt of Ag2CrO4 3. Perchromic Acid Test or Vanishing blue test-blue ethereal layer due to perchromic acid  GROUP VII THE HALOGEN GROUP ØIncludes F, Cl, Br, I and At. ØThey promote oxidation of other substances. ØTheir affinity to oxygen increases with atomic number. ØThey exists in 4 polyanionic states: ØXO4- PER-IC ØXO3- IC ØXO2- OUS Ø XO- HYPO-OUS  IDENTIFICATION TESTS F- 1. Etching test- the etches or markings on the glass become permanent after allowing H2SO4 (conc) to stay on the glass for sometime. 2. AgNO3- no ppt. Cl- 1. AgNO3- white ppt of AgCl soluble in NH3 but insol. In HNO3. 2. With Mercurous nitrate- white ppt. of Hg2Cl2. Br- 1. AgNO3- yellow ppt of AgBr insol in HNO3. 2. KMnO4.H2SO4.chloroform- orange to brown layer due to the liberation of Br2 I- 1. AgNO3- yellow ppt of AgI insol in HNO3 2. KMnO4.H2SO4.chloroform- violet layer due to the liberation of I2  GROUP VIII Co2+ 1. NH4OH- pink ppt of Co(OH)2 which dissolves upon addition of an excess reagent forming yellow solution of Co(NH3) 2+ 2. KNO2.HAc- yellow ppt of K2Co(NO2)6 Ni2+ 1. NH4OH- green ppt of Ni(OH) 2 which dissolves upon the addition of an excess reagent forming a blue solution of Ni(NH3)4+ 2. Dimethylglyoxime- red ppt of Ni dimethylgloxime  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FERROUS AND FERRIC Fe2+ Fe3+ KCNS No reaction Fe(CNS) 3 Blood red solution K3Fe(CN)6 Fe3 [Fe(CN)6]2 FeFe(CN) 6 or Fe(CN)3 Turnbull’s blue Brown solution K4Fe(CN) 6 Fe2Fe(CN) 6 Fe4[Fe(CN) 6] 3 White ppt Prussian blue PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS (Groups, Origins of Element Names, Discovery, Properties of Elements)  GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE qIA- Alkali Metals- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr qIB- Coinage Metals- Cu, Ag, Au qIIA- Alkaline Earth Metals- Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba qIIB- Cd, Hg, Zn qIIIA- B, Al, Ga, In, Tl qIIIB- Lanthanides ( sixth period ) and Actinides (seventh period) qIVA- C, Si, Ge, Pb qIVB- Ti, Zr GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE qVA- Nitrogen Family- N, P, As, Sb, Bi qVB- Vanadium Subgroup- V, Nb, Ta qVIA- Sulfur Family- O and S qVIB- Chromium Subgroup- Cr, Mo, W, U qVIIA- Halogen Family- F, Cl, Br, I qVIIIA-Inert Gases- He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn  ORIGINS OF ELEMENTS’ NAMES ACCORDING TO COLOR qChromium -Khroma (Greek) for color qChlorine -Khloros (Greek) for yellow green qIodine-Ioeides (Greek) means violet qRhodium -Rhodon (Greek) means rose qIridium- Iris (Greek meaning rainbow) qCesium-Caesius (Latin), blue of the upper part of the firmament qRubidium- Rubidus (Latin) deepest red qThallium-Thallus (Latin) means sprouting green twig qIndium -Indicum (Latin) means indigo  ORIGINS OF ELEMENTS’ NAMES AS KNOWN BY ALCHEMISTS qCarbon (Latin) ,Carbonis (Greek); charcoal (English). qGold -Aurora was the goddess of dawn qSilver- Argentum (Latin) originates from argunas: (Sanskrit) meaning shining. qLead -Plumbum; plumbum nigrum (black lead) by the Romans; plumbum candidum (light lead, now called Tin). qTin- Stannum: is connected to stagnum and stag (Indo-European)  ORIGINS OF ELEMENTS’ NAMES AS KNOWN BY ALCHEMISTS qMercury- Hydrargyrum from hydro- argyros (Greek) for water-silver since mercury is a shiny liquid. qPlatinum-Plata (Spanish) for silver qSulfur -Schwefel-/svovel/svavl (German & Scandinavian) originated from suelphlos (Indo-European), which is derived from swel meaning to burn slowly.  AS BASED ON MODERN CELESTIAL BODIES qTellurium- Tellus is the (Latin) name for the earth. qUranium -after the planet Uranus qCerium -was derived from Ceres, the first asteroid qSelenium- Selene is the (Greek) name for the moon. qPalladium -after Pallas (Athene), the second asteroid qHelium -for Helios, the (Greek) name for the sun. qNeptunium- Neptune was the god of the seas. qPlutonium -Pluto was the god of the underworld  ORIGINS OF ELEMENTS’ NAMES AS NAMED FROM ORE MINES qCadmium- meaning cadmium fornacum or furnace calamine qMagnesium- for white magnesia from Magnesia in ancient Greece  ORIGINS OF ELEMENTS’ NAMES AS NAMED FROM PEOPLE qCurium- Pierre & Marie Curie qEinsteinium-Albert Einstein qFermium-Enrico Fermi qMendelevium-Dmitri Mendeleev qNobelium-Alfred Nobel qLawrencium -Ernest Lawrence qSamarium -V.E. Samarski-Bykhovets qGadolinium-Sir Johan Gadolin qRutherfordium-Ernest Rutherford qRoentgenium -Wilhelm Röntgen  DISCOVERY AND PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS Hydrogen (Aka: “inflammable air”) Lightest element Highly flammable diatomic gas. most common isotope of hydrogen is protium; other isotopes are deuterium and tritium was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von Hohenheim (also known as Paracelsus, 1493–1541)  LITHIUM (Aka: “Earth”) Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Jöns Jakob Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithos" which means stone.  SODIUM Has the symbol Na (Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) Sodium is a soft, silvery white, highly reactive element. It is the most abundant extracellular cation.  POTASSIUM It has the symbol K (Latin: kalium) It was discovered in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH). It is the most abundant intracellular cation.  CESIUM it is one of the metals that are liquid at or near room temperature. It was spectroscopically discovered by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860 in mineral water from Dürkheim, Germany AMMONIUM (hypothetical alkali metal) Produced by Haber’s process. (nitrogen fixation reaction of N2 gas and H2 gas to produce ammonia) It is a positively charged polyatomic cation.  COPPER Third most malleable metal. Third best conductor of electricity. The only red metal. Hydrated salts are generally blue. It is a coinage metal like silver and gold. Coins in European Union, United States, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand contain copper. It is a component of alloys like bronze and brass. Manifestation of toxicity: Wilson’s disease (neurological symptoms and liver disease). Antidote: penicillamine and uprimine  SILVER Silver is a very ductile and malleable monovalent coinage metal with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of polish. Highest electrical conductivity, even higher than copper. The Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. Toxicity: Argyria Antidote: sodium chloride (NSS), sodium thiosulfate, potassium ferricyanide  GOLD Most malleable and most ductile metal. Best conductor of electricity. Selenic acid is the only single acid that can dissolve gold. Toxicity: gold dermatitis Antidiote: BAL, corticotrophin  BERYLLIUM Beryllium was discovered by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1798. For about 160 years, beryllium was also referred to as glucinium (which means sweet). It is used in fluorescent lighting industry. Most toxic metal  MAGNESIUM Magnesium is flammable. Lightest of all structurally important metal The metal itself was first produced in England by Sir Humphry Davy. It is the second most abundant intracellular cation. It is present in chlorophyll.  CALCIUM It is the second most abundant extracellular cation. Sources: Dolomite, fluorite, gypsum, phosphate rock. Vitamin D is required for its absorption.  BARIUM Barium (Greek bary, meaning "heavy") was first identified in 1774 by Carl Scheele and extracted in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy in England. It is very toxic. Baritosis Antidote: Epsom salt  RADIUM The heaviest of the alkaline earth metals, radium is intensely radioactive. Radium (Latinradius, ray) was discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and her husband Pierre in 1898 in Czech Republic.  ZINC Source: Zinc ores It is used in galvanizing iron. It has protective properties. Present in Insulin Deficiency: Parakeratosis Antidote: NaHCO3  CADMIUM It is called Wood’s metal or Rose’s metal. Toxicity: Itai-itai disease (ouch-ouch) Antidote: BAL, Dimercaprol  MERCURY It is popularly called quicksilver and liquid silver. Toxicity: Minamata disease (Manifestation: brain becomes spongy). Antidote: EDTA  ALUMINUM Most abundant of all metal. Third most abundant element. Toxicity: Shaver’s disease (a progressive lung disorder caused by exposure to Al2O3 which is present in bauxite fume)  CARBON The only element that can form bond with itself. Component of organic compounds. Crystalline form (diamond and graphite). Amorphous form (coal, anthracite). A component of activated charcoal. (The composition of the universal antidote is 2 parts activated charcoal, 1 part MgO and 1 part tannic acid).  SILICON It is the second most abundant element. An important component of glass.  LEAD Poisonous (Plumbism). Blue line on gums. Antidote: EDTA, Ca Versenate  TITANIUM Its name was derived from Titans (sons of the earth). corrosion-resistant Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst  NITROGEN Aka: Mephitic air, azote, without life Most abundant gas in air Container – colored black Liquid nitrogen is used as refrigerant  PHOSPHOROUS Aka: Light carrier, St. Elmo’s fire 2 forms – White: poisonous – Red: non-poisonous  ARSENIC It is also called Lewisite metal. It is a component of salvarsan or 606 or arsphenamine which was discovered by Paul Ehrlich.  TANTALUM It is ideal for bone replacement because it is unaffected by body fluids. Highly corrosion- resistant  OXYGEN It is also called dephlogisticated air, empyreal air. Most abundant element. It is produced by plants. Allotropes: O2 and O3 Container: Green  SULFUR Aka: Brimstone, shubari, enemy of copper Sulfur soap  SELENIUM Aka: Selena, moon Essential trace element Promotes absorption of Vit. E antioxidant  CHROMIUM Glucose tolerance factor MOLYBDENUM Co factor of enzymes associated with flavin dependent enzymes.  URANIUM Radioactive element discovered by Becquerel FLUORINE Most electronegative element. Strongest oxidizing agent among the halogens.  CHLORINE Predominant extracellular anion Component of muriatic acid. BROMINE Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating odor. Toxicity; Brominism Antidote: NaCl  IODINE Most metallic halogen Essential for thyroid poisoning. ASTATINE Only metallic, synthetic, and radioactive halogen  MANGANESE Essential trace element necessary for activation of enzymes like pyruvic carboxylase. (acts as enzyme co-factor) Parkinson-like poisoning TECHNETIUM First element produced artificially. Used in preparation of radiopharmaceutical  RHENIUM Very rare element. It is employed as a catalyst for dehydrogenation. HELIUM Second lightest gas. Inhalation causes Donald Duck sound. Mixture for hypoxia: 80% He and 20% Oxygen  ARGON Most abundant noble gas. Substitute for nitrogen as inert atmosphere for pharmaceuticals. KRYPTON Investigational new drug for inhalator anesthetic together with xenon.  IRON Ferrous compounds are usually green in the hydrated state and white in anhydrous state. Ferric compounds are usually yellow to brown in the hydrated state.  COBALT Present in vit. B12. It is used in the manufacture of beers and batteries. Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia NICKLE Aka: “old nick’s copper” occurs most often in combination with sulfur in millerite and iron in pentlandite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline slow rate of oxidation at room temperature  OSMIUM Heaviest and densest metal known. PLATINUM It is used in making crucibles and wires. PALLADIUM Catalyst in finely divided steel INORGANIC MEDICINALS  GROUP 1A- ALKALI METALS HYDROGEN AND ITS OXIDES H- 1.0079 ØColorless, odorless and tasteless ØDiffuses more rapidly than any other gas ØAbsorbed by many metals partly through the formation of metal hydrides ØNascent hydrogen- refers to the hydrogen produced in a liquid environment containing also the substance to be reduced.  PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN Ø Interaction of superheated steam with red hot iron Ø Electrolysis of water Ø Separation from water gas (a mixture of H2 and CO produced by passing steam over coke at about 10000°C) Ø Interaction of ferrosilicon (an alloy or compound of iron and silicon) with NaOH solution Ø Hydrolysis of metallic hydrides  PHARMACEUTIC USE ØNot employed as a therapeutic agent ØUsed as reactant in various states of purity in its active reducing forms ØIts peroxide is official (0.3% H2O2 ) ØThe most common element present in all acids ØPresent in various compounds such as ammonia, ammonium salts, NaOH, hydrates, etc.  ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN Ø 1H (Protium)- hydrogen from natural sources consists more than 99.8% protium Ø 2D (Deuterium)- occurs in nature. Ø It may be isolated from liquid hydrogen by fractional distillation or by electrolysis of deuterium oxide (heavy water). Ø It is used as bombarding agent in the form of deuterous Ø as a tracer in Pharmacological investigations. Ø 3T (Tritium)- in natural occurrence has not been completely established therefore its preparation is exclusively synthetic. Ø Prepared by the bombardment of berrylium with deuterons. Ø It is radioactive and has a half life of about 12 years.  HYDROGEN OXIDES OF PHARMACEUTICAL IMPORTANCE 1. Water- odorless, tasteless, clear liquid in small quantities but greenish blue in deep layers. ØAbout ¾ of the earth’s crust is covered with water and it constitutes 70% of the human body. TYPES OF NATURALLY OCCURING WATERS (Mineral waters) 1. Alkaline water 5. Saline water 2. Carbonated water 6. Sulfur water 3. Chalybeate water 7. Siliceous water 4. Lithia water COMPOSITION OF NATURAL WATER SUPPLIED BY RIVERS, LAKES, WELLS AND SPRINGS Øsalts of Ca, Fe, K and Na Øorganic matter from falling leaves and twigs Øtraces of CO2, N2, NH3 and other gases from atmosphere Øvariety of suspended matter such as fine particles of clay, sand, microscopic organisms including bacteria and fragments of vegetation.  HARDNESS OF WATER TEMPORARY HARDNESS Ø Contains soluble calcium and magnesium bicarbonates Ø Softened by: ØBoiling ØClark’s lime process ØAddition of soluble alkali carbonates or hydroxides ØAddition of ammonia ØPolyphosphate chelation ØChelation by zeolite (sodium aluminum silicate) ØDeionization or demineralization  HARDNESS OF WATER PERMANENT HARDNESS ØContains calcium or/and magnesium sulfates, chlorides or hydroxides ØSoftened by: ØAddition of soluble carbonates ØPolyphosphate chelation ØChelation by zeolite (sodium aluminum silicate) ØDeionization or demineralization PURIFICATION OF WATER TO MAKE IT POTABLE Ø removal of insoluble matter through appropriate coagulation ,settling and filtering processes. Ø destruction of pathogenic microorganisms by aeration and chlorination. Ø improvement of palatability through aeration and filtration through charcoal. Ø In case the water is hard, softening can be done by partial chemical removal of dissolved/calcium, Mg and Fe by precipitation or by reaction with ion exchange resins. Ø On small scale, water may be purified (free from microorganisms) by boiling for 15- 20 min or by treatment with a chlorinating agent such as Halozone.  PHARMACEUTICAL USES 1. OFFICIAL WATERS Ø Water USP XVIII- used as solvent and is used to make several official solutions tinctures and extracts. Ø Purified water USP XVIII- obtained by distillation or by ion exchange treatment. Ø It is not intended for parenteral administration. Ø Used in the preparation of most USP test reagents. Ø It is the water of choice for extemporaneous compounding. Ø Water for Injection USP XVIII. –purified by distillation. Ø It must pass pyrogen test. Ø It is intended for use as a solvent for the preparation of parental solutions. Ø It must be stored below 4oC or above 37oC. Ø Large scale pharmaceutical preparation Ø Bacteriostatic Water for Injection USP XVII- is a sterile water for injection containing one or more suitable antimicrobial agents (benzyl alcohol). ØIt is used for compounding small volumes of extemporaneous parenterals for IM injection. ØStored in type I or II glass of not >30mL size Ø Sterile water for injection USP XVIII- is water for injection sterilized and suitably packaged which contains no antimicrobial agents. Ø It is used for extemporaneous compounding of parenterals for either intravenous or intramuscular injection. 2.Deuterium oxide (Heavy water) D2O- MW-20.03 Ø It occurs to the extent of only a few parts per million in ordinary water. Ø It is prepared by the electrolysis of ordinary water. Ø It has no therapeutic application but it has been used widely as a research tool in biological and pharmacological investigations. Ø It finds use as a moderator in nuclear reactors. 3. Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 - MW- 34.01 Ø Anhydrous H2O2 contains 47% by weight of available oxygen. It is offered commercially as aqueous solutions containing 30 to 90% H2O2 by weight. Ø It is prepared by metathesis of Ba2O2 and phosphoric acid and by electrolysis of Ammonium persulfate. Ø The strength of H2O2 is frequently designated according to the volume of active oxygen it yields. Thus 1% by weight is equivalent to about 3.3% by volume. 100 volumes H2O2 corresponds to 30% by weight. 30% volume to 9% by weight. Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) Ø All elements of Group IA are characterized by the presence of only one electron in the outermost s orbital. Ø This group comprises the most active of all metallic elements, the reactivity increases with increasing atomic number. Ø They function only with an electropositive valence of one yielding general types of compounds such as oxides. Ø Alkali metal salts of common inorganic and organic acids are colorless and are increasing with increasing ionic radius. Ø They are found only in combined states. LITHIUM (Li)- occurs widely in nature in the form of silicates and phosphates and usually associated with other metals. COMMON MINERALS INCLUDE Petalite Lepidolite Amblygovite Spondumens -LiAl (SiO3) 2 PHARMACEUTICAL USE Lithium carbonate USP XIX has been useful in the treatment of manic state It is prepared by electrolysis of its fused chloride. SODIUM (Na) Ø Most important sodium mineral is NaCl. Ø Na is predominant in the extracellular fluid. Ø Sodium salts should be used with caution in the treatment of cardiac conditions in which edema is an important part of the syndrome because of their propensity to promote retention of water. OTHER NATURALLY OCCURRING SODIUM COMPOUNDS ØSodium nitrate ØSodium Aluminum fluoride- Cryolite ØSodium tetraborate- Borax  COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM OF PHARMACEUTICAL USE 1. NaCl- (table salt, rock salt, solar salt) electrolyte replenisher 2. NaHCO3-( Baking soda) buffer, antacid 3. Na2B4O7.10H2O- (Borax)- water softener, antiseptic 4. Na2CO3.10H2O- (washing soda, sal soda)- antacid 5. Ringer’s Solution- contains NaCl, CaCl2 and KCl- electrolyte replenisher 6. Na3C6H5O7- (Sodium citrate)- buffer, alkalinizer, sequestering agent 7. NaF-dental prophylactic 8. NaOH- (Caustic soda, lye)-saponifying agent 9. NaOCl- (Chlorox)- bleaching agent 10. Na3PO4- Saline cathartic 11. Na2SO4…10H2O- (Glauber’s salt)- Cathartic 12. Na2S2O3.5H2O- (Hypo)- antidote for HCN poisoning 13. Na2SiO4- water glass 14. Na2CO3- Soda ash, soda- primary standard for HCL and other acids 15. NaBr- sedative 16.NaNO3- (Chile salt peter)- preservative 17. NaC2H3O2- diuretic, urinary alkalinizer, systemic antacid POTASSIUM (K) Ø It is predominant in the intracellular fluid. It is the most reactive of all metals. Important K minerals include: Ø Sylvite-KCl Ø Carnallite- KCl-MgCl2.6H2O Ø Kainite- H2SO4.MgSO4.MgCl2.6H2O Ø Polyhalite-K2SO4.MgSO4.2CaSO4.2H2O Potassium salts are often preferred over their sodium analogs because they are frequently more readily purified by crystallization and much less proved to crystallize in hydrated form from aqueous solution. COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM Ø KHC2H4O6-Potassium bitartrate, cream of tartar- cathartic Ø KBr- Sedative Ø KOH- caustic potash-saponifying agent Ø KMnO4- Mineral chameleon- oxidizing agent, antiseptic Ø KNaC4H4O6- Rochelle salt- saline laxative Ø Sulfurated potash- (K2O3) – liver of sulfur, Hepar sulfuric- used for the preparation of white lotion Ø K2CO3- Potash- for preparation of K compounds Ø KNO3- Salt Peter, salitre- meat preservative AMMONIUM (NH4) Ø is a hypothetical metal ion because it behaves very much like alkali metal ion. Ø Concentrated NH3 contains 28% by weight and 10% by volume in diluted forms (Household ammonia). COMPOUNDS OF AMMONIUM Ø NH4OH- Ammonia solution, mild alkalinizer Ø Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia (Spirit of Sal volatile)- reflex stimulant Ø (NH4)2CO3- Sal volatile, Baker’s ammonia, Hartshorn- expectorant Ø HgNH2Cl- Ammoniated Mercury- anti- infective Ø NH4Br- sedative, CNS depressant Ø NH4Cl- Sal Ammoniac- expectorant, systemic acidifier, diuretic  POP QUIZ F 1. Baking soda a. Sodium hypochlorite J 2. Chile salt peter b. Potassium carbonate E 3. Borax c. Ammonium chloride A 4. Chlorox d. Potassium hydroxide D 5. Caustic potash e. Sodium tetraborate I 6. Rochelle salt f. Sodium bicarbonate C 7. Sal ammoniac g. Ammonia H 8. Salt peter h. Potassium nitrate G 9. Spirit of sal volatile i. Sodium potassium tartrate B 10. Potash j. Sodium nitrate  Elements of Group IB (Coinage Metals- Cu, Au and Ag) Ø In contrast to alkali metals, the coinage metals are relatively hard, melt at high temperature, occur both in free and combined states, much less reactive chemically and are relatively stable on exposure to air under ordinary conditions. Ø It exhibits variable valance Ø Forms complex compounds and their cations are reducible to the metallic states. Ø Hydroxides and many simple salts are insoluble in water. Ø Colored compounds are many. COPPER (Cu) Ø salts are blue in color, some greenish blue CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPER Ø 3rd most conductor of electricity Ø 3rd most malleable and ductile Ø The only reddish-colored metal SOURCES OF COPPER Ø Chalcocite(Cu2S) Ø Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) Ø Cuprite Cu2O (red copper oxide) Ø Elementary state as Copper PHARMACEUTIC USES Ø CuSO4.5H2O- Blue vitriol, bluestone- preparation of Fehling’s and Benedict’s solution, fungicide Ø Copper citrate- 8% ointment is used as astringent Ø Copper aceto arsenite( Cu(AsO2)2. Cu(C2H3O2)2- Paris green, Parrot green- insecticide Ø Basic copper acetate (Cu(OH)2. Cu(C2H3O2)2)- Verdigris- paint pigment Ø Copper hydrogen arsenite(CuH2AsO3)- Scheele’s green Ø CuSO4.5H2O.CuO- Bordeaux mixture- algaecide and fungicide for swimming pool. SILVER (Ag) COMPOUNDS OF Ag AgNO3- lunar caustic Mild-Silver protein- Argyrol- Antiseptic Strong Silver protein- Protargol- germicidal Colloidal Ag Protein- Collargol-germicidal Colloidal AgI-Neosilvol-germicide Silver picrate- Picritol, Picragol- treatment of vaginitis GOLD (Aurum, Shining Dawn) ØKing of all metals because of its color, scarcity and permanency ØMost malleable and ductile ØBest conductor of electricity ØDissolves by aqua regia ( Royal water- 3 HCl and 1 HNO3) ØDissolves by selenic acid (the only single acid that can dissolve gold) PHARMACEUTICAL USES Ø Used in the treatment of lupus erythematous and rheumatoid arthritis, given IV Ø Gold compound is toxic. Dimercaprol is an effective antidote. Ø Radioactive isotope: Au is used in the treatment of certain malignancies. Ø A solution of colloidal gold is used to determine the protective power of colloids. The gold number (Zsigmondy) is an index of the protective power of colloids. Purity of Au is expressed in carats %Au= (K/24) x 100  Elements of Group IIA ( Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra) ØAlkaline earth metals ØThese elements are strictly metallic. ØThey function uniformly with a +2 oxidation ØDo not occur free in nature because of high order of chemical reactivity. ØHydroxides of Ca, Sr and Ba are relatively insoluble in H2O and strongly basic. ØCarbonates, sulfates, phosphates and fluorides are quite insoluble MAGNESIUM (Mg) SOURCES ØMagnetic Magnesium carbonate ØDolomite- MgCO3.CaCO3 ØCarnallite KCl. MgCl2.6H2O ØMeerschaum- Mg2Si3O3.2H2O ØKieserite- MgSO4.H2O ØBrucite- Mg(OH)2 ØAsbestos- H4Mg3Si2o6 CHARACTERISTICS ØLightest of all structurally useful metal. ØBurns in air with a blinding bluish light-active rays hence used in photography, in flash bulbs and signal lights. ØUsed in research involving photosynthesis for it is present in plats specifically in chlorophyll. MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS ØMilk of Magnesia Mg(OH)2- antacid, laxative ØMgCO3-Magnesia ØMgO- Calcined magnesia CALCIUM (Ca) SOURCES Ø CaCO3- marble, limestone, chalk Ø CaSO4.2H2O- gypsum, selenite Ø 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2- apatite Ø Ca3(PO4)2- phosphate rock Ø CaF2- fluorspar CHARACTERISTICS Ø Primary element in bones Ø Essential factor in blood coagulation or blood clotting Ø Ca salts are more soluble in cold than in hot solutions CALCIUM COMPOUNDS CaCO3- precipitated chalk- antacid, dentrifice CaCl2.H2O- Muriate of Lime- electrolyte replenisher Ca(OH)2- Milk of lime, liquor calcium- antacid Calcium lactate- source of Ca ion CaO- lime, quicklime CaSO4.1/2H2O- Plaster of Paris- fro preparing bandages CaOCl- Chlorinate lime- bleaching agent, disinfectant Ca3(PO4)2- bone ash-most important constituent of teeth and bones. CaCO3. MgCO3- Dolomite- antacid BARIUM (Ba) Pharmaceutic Uses: BaSO4- is the radiopaque substance in diagnostic explorations of the GIT All Ba Compounds are poisonous. MgSO4 is the best antidote. BERRYLIUM (Be) SOURCE-:Emeralds- are metasilicates of Be with Al and Cr. Use: Use in fire control apparatus STRONTIUM (Sr) SOURCE: SrCO3-Strontionite and SrSO4- Celestite USE:used in industry of pyrotechnics (red signal flare) RADIUM (Ra)- second radioactive element discovered after uranium USE: Used for making luminous paints for dials of watches and clocks and source of radiation  ELEMENTS OF GROUP IIB (Zn, Cd AND Hg) CHARACTERISTICS ØZinc and Cadmium function exclusively in the +2 oxidation state. ØMercury reacts in both the +1 and +2 states. ØAll members of this group can serve as the central atom in forming coordination complexes. ØZinc and Cadmium occur only in the combined state. ZINC (Zn) USES ØProtective coating for galvanized iron ØAlloy- Brass contains Cu and Zn. ØContainer for dry cells and batteries Øfor embalming ( ZnCl2) ØUse NaHCO3 for Zinc poisoning  PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS ØZnO- astringent and protectant (Zinc white) ØZnCO3- astringent and desensitizer for dentin ØZnSO4- popular ophthalmic astringent ØZnO2- oxidizing type of topical anti-infective ØZnSO4.7H2O- White vitriol-emetic MERCURY (Hg) -Hydrargyrum, Quicksilver Hg COMPOUNDS ØHg2Cl2- Calomel-cathartic ØHgCl2 - corrosive sublimate- disinfectant ØYellow mercuric oxide- ophthalmic antibacterial ØAmmoniated Mercury- a topical and ophthalmic anti-infective (HgNH2Cl) –white precipitate  ELEMENTS OF GROUP III (B, Al, Ga, In, Tl) BORON (B) Ø Oxyacids of Boron: Ø H3BO3- Orthoboric acid Ø (HBO2)n polymetaboric acid Ø H2B4O7-tetraboric acid Ø HBO3-perboric or peroxyboric acid PHARMACEUTICAL USES: Ø H3BO3- topical anti-infective and ophthalmic irritant Ø Na3BO3- Bacteriostatic and ingredient in cold cream, eye washes and mouth washes. Ø Sodium perborate- oxidizing type of local anti-infective Ø Boric and Borate- are toxic. No effective chemical antidote treatment is symptomatic and supportive. ALUMINUM(Al) CHARACTERISTICS ØMost abundant of all metals ØThird most abundant element following oxygen and Silicon ØCommon compounds of Al are white ØMixed with oxides and silicates and other metals Øemerald- Be-Al-Cr ØRubies- Al-Cr ØSapphire-Al-Co ØTurquoise- Al-Cu PHARMACEUTICAL USES Ø Hydroxides and phosphates of Al- Gastric antacid Al(OH)3-Creamalin and AlPO4- Phosphage Ø Pot. Aluminum sulfate- Alum- astringent Ø Kaolin- hydrated aluminum silicate- adsorbent and demulcent Ø AlCl3- Popular ingredient of astringent; anti- perspirant and deodorant Ø Bentonite- native hydrated aluminum silicate- suspending agent, used in cooking utensils, roofing and construction. Ø Aluminum acetate- Burrow’s solution – astringent  ELEMENTS OF GROUP IIIB (Yttrium, Scandium and Lanthanide and Actinide) No pharmaceutical use  ELEMENTS OF GROUP IVA (C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb) CARBON- found in pure state in the form of Diamond, Graphite and Coal OFFICIAL FORMS OF CARBON 1. Activated charcoal- adsorbent, component of Universal antidote 2. CO2- component of carbonated drinks-respiratory stimulant stimulant in tx of CO., alcohol and morphine poisoning 3. Carbonates of Ca, Mg and Al- gastric antacid 4. CO-toxic poison 5. CS2- solvent 6. CCl4-good solvent, good fire extinguisher 7. (CN)2- Cyanogen- extremely poisonous 8. Bismuth subcarbonate- astringent and protective 9. (NH4)2CO3- reflex stimulant SILICON- 2nd most abundant element ØWhen united with O2 it occurs as SiO2 (silica) in the form of quartz, flint, sand, agate and opal ØZircon- ZnSiO4 ØGarnet- is Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF Si ØPurified Siliceous earth (SiO2)-absorbent, filtering medium and clarifying agent. ØBentonite- soap clay, mineral soap, native calloidal hydrated aluminum silicate ØKaolin- native hydrated aluminum silicate- adsorptive for diarrhea, dusting powder ØPumice- dissolving agent for slowly soluble substances Ø Talc- Soapstone, Purified talc- hydrated Mg silicate( softest mineral known)- use as a dusting agent and filtering agent Ø Silicic acid-used in ceramic industry in the manufacture of bricks, tile, pottery, used in glass manufacture Ø Soda-lime of soft glass- made by fusing CaCO3, Na2CO3 and SiO2 Ø Pyrex-80% SiO2, 2% Al2O3 and 13% B2O3 Ø Hard or Potash glass- 80% SiO2, 0.6% Na2O, 0.7% CaO, 12% K2O Ø Flint glass Ø Silicones-synthetic compounds composed of Si Ø Simethicone- a polymeric dimethylsiloxane-antifoaming agent, antiflatulent in gastric bloating and post-operative gaseous distention of the GIT. SILICOSIS- a lung disease caused by dust of silica or silicate accumulating in the lungs. TIN (Sn) USES ØSnO2-germicidal ØSnF2- adjunct in prevention of dental caries, dental prophylactic ØManufacture of tin cans and foils ØManufacture of Alloy: ØPewter (terne) - Pb and Sn (20:80) ØGunmetal- Cu and Sn (bronze) ØSolder- Pb and Sn ( 50:50) LEAD (Pb) SOURCES: Ø Galena (PbS) Ø Cerusite( PbCO3) Ø Anglesite- PbSO4 COMPOUNDS OF LEAD Ø Pb (Ac)2- sugar of Pb- astringent Ø Pbsubacetate solution- Goulard’s extract Ø Dil. Lead Subacetate Solution Ø PbO- Litharge- used in the preparation of lead subacetate solution Ø Pb3O4- red minium-paint pigments Ø PbCl2-astringent and dusting powder GROUP IVB (Ti, Zr and Hf) TITANUM (Ti) Uses: TiO2-only official titanium compound-solar- shy which is used a protectant by preventing the undesirable effects of sunlight  GROUP VA (N, P, As, Sb, Bi) NITROGEN Ø Nitrous oxide (N2O, laughing gas, nitrogen monoxide, dinitrogen monoxide)- used as anesthetic in combination with oxygen Ø Nitrogen, USP- (N2) air displacer in parenteral containers Ø Nitric acid NF- (HNO3)- used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, coal tar des and explosives, used externally to destroy chancres and warts. Ø Silver nitrate Ophthalmic solution USP-(Azotas Argenticus Cristales Lunares)- antibacterial prophyolaxis for ophthalmia neonatorum, as ingredient to dressing for burn patients Ø Toughened silver nitrate USP (Lunar Caustic, silver nitrate pencils)- escharotic and germicide (small wounds or ulcers) PHOSPHORUS Ø Phosphoric acid, NF- (H3PO4, orthophosphoric acid)- used as acidifying agent Ø Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4- fertilizer Ø Hypophosphorus acid NF- (HPH2O2)- antioxidant for Iodine preparations Ø Aluminum Phosphate gel NF- Phosphagel ARSENIC Ø Lead arsenate Pb3(AsO4)2- insecticide Ø Sheele’s green CuHAsO3- paint pigment Ø Fowler’s solution (potassium arsenite)- treatment of leukemia Ø Arsenicals- treatment of trypanosomiasis and amebiasis ANTIMONY ØAntimony potassium tartrate (NaKC4H4O6, tartar emetic)- treatment of schistosomiasis, emetic and expectorant BISMUTH ØUsed in the preparation of Rose’s metal (Sn, Pb, Bi)  GROUP VIA (O, S, Se) SULFUR Ø Sublimed sulfur (S)- antifungal agent Ø Precipitated sulfur (milk of sulfur, sulfur ointment)- treatment of scabicide, treatment of seborrhea, acne, psoriasis, used as keratolytic agent Ø Sulfurated potash (liver of sulfur, potassium polysulfides and potassium thiosulfate)- used in the preparation of white lotion (lotio alba), scabicide, treatment of acne, psoriasis Ø Selenium sulfide (SeS2)- antidandruff Ø Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)- dehydrating agent, used in the preparation of pyroxylin USP Ø Hydrogen sulfide Ø Sulfur dioxide OXYGEN ØMost abundant chemical, 50% of the earth’s crust is oxygen. ØEssential for combustion to occur ØMain cause of oxidation of pharmaceutical products ØUsed primarily in gas poisoning and other respiratory impairments  GROUP VIB (Cr, Mo, W) ØExhibits several oxidation states where they act as metallic elements at lower oxidation states and as nonmetallic elements in higher oxidation states. ØThey are all metals with high melting points, great hardness and excellent resistance to corrosion CHROMIUM Ø A very hard, silvery white metal which is very resistant to corrosion Ø Cr+3- green, CrO4-2- yellow, Cr2O7-2- orange red and CrO3- red Ø Effective oxidizing agents USES Ø Tanning of leather Ø Paint pigment- yellow (PbCrO4 and BaCrO4) and red (PbO·PbCrO4) Ø Alloys of chromium Ø Stainless steel- in combination with Fe Ø Nichrome- with Ni and Fe Ø Stellite- with W and Co Ø An essential trace element MOLYBDENUM Ø A trace element associated with flavin-dependent enzymes Ø Mo2O3 in combination with FeSO4 in the ration of 3 mg: 195 mg is used as hematinic. (Mol-Iron) Ø Used to produce alloys with iron for making high- speed tools. TUNGSTEN Ø Used to produce alloys with steel to produce highly heat resistant products Ø Principal minerals include scheelite (CaWO4) and wolframite (FeWO4·MnWO4)  GROUP VIIA (HALOGENS) ØHalogen or ‘Salt formers’ ØThese are active nonmetals with high electronegativities ØExhibits oxidations states ranging from -1 to +7 ØPhysical properties change with increase in atomic weight. Fluorine and chlorine- gas, Bromine- liquid, Iodine-solid CHLORIDE Ø Cl- is the major extracellular anion and responsible for proper hydration, osmotic pressure and cation- anion balance. PREPARATIONS Ø Sodium chloride, USP- IV fluid, irrigating solution, isotonicity contributor Ø Potassium chloride, USP-treatment of hypopotassemia, Moniere’s syndrome, antidote for digitalis poisoning, adjunct to myasthenia gravis treatment Ø Calcium chloride, USP- electrolyte replenisher FLUORIDE ØNonessential ion ØAnticariogenic action- NaF BROMIDE ØHas CNS depressant properties ØHas sedative effects- KBr IODINE ØEssential ion for the synthesis of two hormones produced by the thyroid gland, triodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) ØHas pharmacological action as fibrolytic agent, expectorant and bactericidal agent. PREPARATIONS ØIodine, USP-  GROUP VIIB (Mn, Tc, Re) MANGANESE Ø Found in nature as pyrolusite (MnO2) Ø The pure metal resembles iron Ø Reddish in color and relatively soft Ø An essential trace element Ø Excessive intake can lead to chronic manganism with symptoms like mental disturbances, bradykinesia, asthenia, dysarthria, dystonia Ø Used to producing alloys with iron Ø Potassium permanganate (Mineral chameleon)- used as antibacterial and antifungal agent  GROUP VIII (Fe, Co, Ni, Pt) IRON Ø Essential to the elementary metabolic processes in the cell. Ø Hemaprotein- responsible for respiration Ø Ferritin and hemosiderin- transport proteins Ø Used as hematinic PREPARATIONS Ø Ferrous fumarate USP- Ircon, Toleron Ø Ferrous gluconate NF- Fergon Ø Ferrous sulfate USP- (Green vitriol) COBALT AND NICKEL ØForm two series of compounds with characteristic oxidation states of +2 and +3. ØCobalt salts- pink or blue ØNickel salts- green  Radiopharmacy Nuclide - is an atomic species characterized by the specific constitution of its nucleus, i.e., by its number of protons Z, its number of neutrons N, and its energy state. Class: – Stable – Unstable or radioactive » When its neutron, proton ratio is too high or too low » Its mass is too great » It contains an unpaired neutron or proton Designation Characteristics Example Isotopes equal proton number C C 12 13 6 6 Isotones equal neutron number Isobars equal mass number Mirror neutron and proton nuclei number exchanged Nuclear different energy states isomers  Radioactive Decay or Transformation Ø Unstable nuclei spontaneously undergo change toward a more stable configuration, radiation emitted. Ø Radiations emitted during the radioactive decay process have the ability to ionize the atoms of materials through which they pass. Ø Individual radio nuclides differ from one another in mode, energy, and rate of decay. Ø Mode of decay indicates the type of ionizing radiation emitted ҉ (α, β, g and x-ray). Ø Energy is usually expressed in MeV or KeV  Types of Radiation a - particle — He2+ nucleus b-- negatron — e- ejected by nucleus b+- positron — e+ ejected by nucleus – Undergoes annihilation to emit two 0.511 MeV photons at 180o g - gamma ray — photon emitted by nucleus  Penetration Range of Particles Alpha particle: 30-80 µm in tissue or 3-8 cell diameters Beta particle: up to 11 mm in tissue or up to 1100 cell diameters (depends on energy)  Instruments used to measure Radioactivity 1. Ion chambers 2. Proportional counters 3. Geiger – Muller counters 4. Semi – conductor detectors – [Si(Li)] spectrometers – alpha & beta particles 5. Scintillation detectors – Alpha & beta particles  Radiopharmaceuticals Drugs that contain a radioactive atom Diagnostic imaging agents Radiotherapeutic agents  Radiopharmaceuticals ~95% of nuclear medicine procedures are diagnostic, the rest therapeutic Have no pharmacologic effect because at tracer levels  Diagnosis Purpose is imaging disease Need penetrating radiation – Gamma or positron emission Examples: 99mTc, 111In, 123I, 18F  Radiotherapy Purpose is cell destruction Particle emitters – a particles – b particles – Auger electrons Examples: 153Sm, 90Y, 131I, 213Bi,  Importance of Tc-99m Tc-99m – 6 h half-life – 140 keV g emission – Mo-99/Tc-99m generator – High specific activity – Used in >85% of all nuclear medicine scans  Important Characteristics of Radiopharmaceuticals Emits beta or gamma radiation Concentrated in specific manner Eliminated easily and of low toxicity  Application of radiopharmaceuticals Diagnosis: Radiopharmaceuticals Uses Tc 99m-Phylate Liver imaging Tc 99m-Heptagluconate Kidney imaging Tc 99m-HIDA Hepato-biliary (Hepatic imaging iminodiacetic acid) Radiopharmaceuticals Uses Tc 99m-Etidronate Bone imaging I-131-Human Serum Albumin Blood plasma volume or cardiac output det. NaI-125 Thyroid function Na3PO4 Serum Albumin Localization of ocular tumors Application of radiopharmaceuticals Treatment of disease: Chromic phosphate P32 for lung, ovarian, uterine, and prostate cancers Sodium iodide I 131 for thyroid cancer Samarium Sm 153 for cancerous bone tissue Sodium phosphate P 32 for cancerous bone tissue and other types of cancers Stronium chloride Sr 89 for cancerous bone tissue There are three units related to radiation: ( R) the roentgen for exposure Is the amount of x or γ radiation that produces ionization of one electrostatic unit of either positive or negative charge per cubic centimeter of air at 0 ºC and 760 mmHg. (rad) radiation absorbed dose is a more universal unit, it is a measure of the energy deposited in unit mass of any material by any type of radiation. The dose equivalent unit (rem) roentgen equivalent man rem has been developed to account for the differences in effectiveness of different radiations in causing biological damage. In radiobiology, the rem is defined as Rem = rad ´ RBE RBE is the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation. The basic unit for quantifying radioactivity (i.e. describes the rate at which the nuclei decay). Curie (Ci): A unit of radioactivity. A curie is defined as 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second. In 1980, The new basic unit for quantifying radioactivity. Becquerel (Bq): SI unit of radioactivity. One becquerel is equal to 1 disintegration per second. Sievert (Sv): The unit of absorbed dose equivalent and equal to 100 rem.  GLASS Boron reduces the coefficient of expansion. Potassium gives a brown and light resistant glass. Lead increases the refractive index of glass.  GLASS TYPES Type Description I Highly resistant borosilicate glass II Treated soda lime glass III Soda lime glass NP General purpose soda lime glass PHARMACEUTICAL AIDS AND NECESSITIES  GLASS Boron reduces the coefficient of expansion. Potassium gives a brown and light resistant glass. Lead increases the refractive index of glass.  GLASS TYPES Type Description I Highly resistant borosilicate glass II Treated soda lime glass III Soda lime glass NP General purpose soda lime glass  WATER Alkaline water Carbonated water Chalybeate water Lithia water Saline water or purgative water Sulfur water Siliceous water  HARDNESS OF WATER Permanent Temporary (Bicarbonate) Remedies for temporary hard water: Boiling Clark’s Lime Process Addition of ammonia Addition of alkali carbonate  OFFICIAL WATERS Water, USP Purified Water, USP Water for Injection, USP Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP Sterile Water for Injection, USP  OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF HYDROGEN Hydrogen peroxide Syn: agua oxigenada Preps: 3% and 6 %  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF LITHIUM Lithium carbonate Lithium chloride  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM Sodium bicarbonate Syn: Baking soda Sodium biphosphate Syn: Fleet enema Sodium bisulfite Use: water soluble antioxidant  Sodium carbonate- produced by Solvay process Sodium chloride Syn: table salt, rock salt, solar salt, dendritic salt Sodium fluoride (2%) anticariogenic  Sodium hydroxide Syn: caustic soda, lye Sodium hypophosphite Use: reducing agent Sodium hypochlorite Syn: Dakin’s solution, Chlorox Sodium iodide Use: Expectorant  Sodium lactate Use: antacid, antikeratogenic Sodium nitrite Syn: salitre Sodium nitrate Syn: chile saltpeter Sodium perborate Use: oral treatment of Vincent’s angina  Sodium metaphosphate Syn: Graham’s salt Sodium sulfate Syn: Glauber’s salt Sodium tartrate Use: standardization of KF rgt Sodium thiocyanate Use: hypotensive Sodium thiosulfate Syn: photographer’s hypo  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM Potassium acetate Use: diuretic, urinary alkalinizer Potassium dichromate Syn: Fowler’s solution Potassium bitartrate Syn: Cream of tartar Potassium bromide Use: depressant  Potassium carbonate Syn: salt of tartar, salt of wormwood, pearl ash Potassium chlorate Use: component of gargles and mouthwashes Potassium chloride Syn: Darrow’s solution Potassium citrate Use: Diuretic, expectorant, diaphoretic  Potassium hydroxide Syn: caustic potash, lye potash, soft soap Potassium iodide Use: expectorant and antifungal Potassium nitrate Syn: saltpeter, sal prunelle Potassium permanganate Syn: Mineral chameleon, Condy’s crystals  Potassium phosphate Use: saline cathartic Potassium sodium tartrate Syn: Rochelle salt Potassium thiocyanate Use: Hypotensive agent  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF AMMONIA Aromatic spirit of ammonia Syn: Spirit of Hartshorn, smelling salts Ammonium bromide Use: depressant, sedative  Ammonium carbonate Syn: sal volatile, hartshorn, preston salt Ammonium chloride Syn: sal ammoniac, muriate of hartshorn Ammoniated mercury Syn: white precipitate Ammonium iodide Use: Expectorant Ammonium acetate Syn: Spirit of Minderesus  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF COPPER Copper sulfate Syn: Blue vitriol, Blue stone Prep: Bordeaux mixture  Copper aceto arsenate Syn: Paris green Use: insecticide Cuprous citrate Syn: Hatchet’s brown Use: astringent  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF SILVER Silver nitrate Syn: Lunar caustic, Lapis infernalis, Caustic pencil, Cristales lunares, Indelible ink Use: prophylaxis to ophthalmia neonatorum  Ammoniacal silver nitrate Syn: Howe’s solution Silver iodide Use: Germicide  OFFICIAL GOLD COMPOUNDS Aurothioglucose Gold sodium thiomalate Gold bromide Auranofin Use: Whooping cough supressant  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF MAGNESIUM Magnesium carbonate Syn: magnesia Magnesium oxide Syn: Calcined magnesia Magnesium hydroxide Syn: milk of magnesia  Magnesium sulfate Syn: Epsom salt Hydrated magnesium silicate Syn: talc, French chalk, soap stone It is the softest mineral known. Magnesium citrate Syn: Lemonada purgante, purgative lemon  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF CALCIUM Calcium carbonate Syn: prepared chalk Calcium chloride Syn: Muriate of lime Calcium oxide Syn: quicklime, lime, Vleminck’s solution Calcium hydroxide Syn: slaked lime, lime water, hydrated lime  Tribasic calcium phosphate Syn: Bone ash Chlorinated lime Use: bleaching agent Calcium sulfate Syn: Plaster of paris, Gypsum  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF STRONTIUM Strontium chloride Strontium lactate Use: Adjuvant with calcium to promote remineralization of skeletons  OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF BARIUM Barium sulfate Syn: Blanc fixe, Permanent white, Baryte OFFICIAL ZINC COMPOUNDS Zinc carbonate Syn: calamine Zinc chloride Syn: Butter of zinc Zinc oxide Syn: Zinc white, Lassar’s Paste  Zinc sulfate Syn: white vitriol Zinc sulfide Syn: white lotion, lotio alba Hydrated zinc silicate Syn: natural calamine  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF CADMIUM Cadmium chloride Use: for ringworm infections Cadmium sulfide Syn: Yellow sulfide Use: antiseborrheic  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF MERCURY Mercuric sulfide Syn: Cinnabar Mercurous chloride Syn: Calomel Mercuric chloride Syn: Corrosive sublimate  Mercuric iodide Use: component of Valser’s rgt Potassium mercuric iodide Use: component of Mayer’s rgt Ammoniated mercury Syn: white precipitate Mercuric oxide Syn: yellow precipitate  SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF MINAMATA DISEASE 1. Gait disturbance, loss of balance (ataxia), speech disturbance (Dysarthria) 2. Sight disturbance of peripheral areas in the visual fields (constriction of visual fields) 3. Stereo anesthesia (Disturbance of sensation) 4. Muscle weakness, muscle cramp (disturbance of movement) 5. Hardness of hearing (hearing disturbance) 6. Disturbance of sense of pain, touch or temperature (Disturbance of sensation) OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF BORON Boric acid Syn: sal sedativum, Hombergi, boracic acid Toxicity: Lobster appearance Sodium borate Syn: borax, sodium tetraborate  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF ALUMINUM Aluminum chloride Syn: Lewis acid Aluminum hydroxide Syn: Amphojel, Maalox Aluminum phosphate Syn: Phosphagel Aluminum carbonate Syn: Basaljel  Aluminum oxide Syn: alumina Native hydrated aluminum silicate Syn: Kaolin, China clay Native colloidal hydrated aluminum silicate Syn: Bentonite, Soap clay, Mineral soap Potassium sodium aluminum silicate Syn: Pumice Aluminum acetate Syn: Burrow’s solution  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF CARBON Carbon dioxide Syn: Carbonic acid gas Carbon monoxide Poisoning manifested by cherry red skin. Affinity to hemoglobin is 210x greater than oxygen OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF SILICON Silica Syn: Celite Simethicone Uses: antifoaming agent, antiflatulent in gastric bloating  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF LEAD Lead acetate Syn: sugar of lead Lead oxide Syn: litharge Lead subacetate Syn: Goulard’s extract OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF TITANIUM Titanium dioxide Use: solar ray protectant  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF ZIRCONIUM Zirconium oxide Zirconium carbonate They are claimed to be effective in combating the effects of uroshioll in poison ivy dermatitis  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN Nitrogen gas Syn: mephitic air, azote Use: antioxidant in ampoules Nitrous oxide Syn: Laughing gas Recreational use: “Space surfing”  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF ARSENIC Potassium arsenite Syn: Fowler’s solution Arsenic triiodide Syn: Donovan’s solution Arsenic trioxide Syn: Arsenous acid, white arsenic  OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF ANTIMONY Antimony potassium tartrate Syn: tartar emetic, Brown mixture Use: treatment of schistosomiasis  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF BISMUTH Bismuth subcarbonate Bismuth subgallate Bismuth subnitrate They are used for their astringent, mildly germicidal and antacid properties.  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF SULFUR Precipitated sulfur Syn: Milk of sulfur Sulfurated potash Syn: Liver of sulfur Sublimed sulfur Syn: Flower of sulfur  OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF SELENIUM Selenium sulfide Use: anti-dandruff (component of Selsun Blue)  PREPARATIONS OF IODINE Lugol’s Solution (Strong iodine solution) Povidone iodine (Betadine) Iodine Tincture – Used as antiseptics  OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF IRON Ferrous sulfate Syn: Green vitriol Ferrous gluconate Syn: Fergon Ferrous carbonate Syn: Chalybeate pills Ferrous ammonium acetate Syn: Basham’s mixture  Ferrous ferrocyanide Syn: Prussian blue Ferrous ferricyanide Syn: Turnbull’s blue Iron sorbitex Description: Complex of iron with sorbitol and citric acid OFFICIAL COMPOUNDS OF NICKEL Nickel pectinate Use: treatment of diarrhea Nickel sulfate Use: parasiticide OFFICIAL COMPOUND OF OSMIUM Osmium tetroxide Use: Staining of microscope specimen used in electron microscopy  RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS It is a chemical containing a radioactive isotope for use in humans for the purpose of diagnosis, mitigation, or treatment of a disease.  Types of Radiations Alpha Beta Gamma  Important Characteristics of Radiopharmaceuticals Emits beta or gamma radiation Concentrated in specific manner Eliminated easily and of low toxicity Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Uses Radiopharmaceuticals Uses Tc 99m-Phylate Liver imaging Tc 99m-Heptagluconate Kidney imaging Tc 99m-HIDA Hepato-biliary (Hepatic imaging iminodiacetic acid) Radiopharmaceuticals Uses Tc 99m-Etidronate Bone imaging I-131-Human Serum Albumin Blood plasma volume or cardiac output det. NaI-125 Thyroid function Na3PO4 Serum Albumin Localization of ocular tumors