Development of Science & Technology Through History PDF

1. Development of Science & Technology Throughout History Learning Outcome: At the end of the course, the student will be able to: Identify the important technological discoveries that influenced human life and communities during the Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance and Modern times....

1. Development of Science & Technology Throughout History Learning Outcome: At the end of the course, the student will be able to: Identify the important technological discoveries that influenced human life and communities during the Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance and Modern times. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 2 Major References: ▪ Antoniadis, Christos. (2018). “Byzantine Philosophy, Technology, Science and Medicine.” Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@christoss200/byzantine-philosophy-technology-and- medicine-4b160952970b ▪ Balakrishnan, Janaki and B V Sreekantan., (2014). Nature’s Longest Threads: New Frontiers in the Mathematics and Physics of Information in Biology, World Scientific. ▪ Burke, J., Bergman, J., & Asimov, I., (1985). The Impact of Science on Society. Washington, D.C., U.S.A: U.S.: Government Printing Office. ▪ Floridi, Luciano. (2014). The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere is Reshaping Human Reality: Oxford University Press ▪ Henry, John. "Scientific Revolution." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Retrieved August 11, 2020 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts- and-maps/scientific-revolution ▪ Kennedy, Lesley. "The Prehistoric Ages: How Humans Lived Before Written Records.” Retrieved from History.com: https://www.history.com/news/prehistoric-ages-timeline#section_1 ▪ Kiger, Patrick. “9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World”. https://www.history.com/news/sumerians-inventions-mesopotamia ▪ Noble, Thomas. (2016). “Europe in the Middle Ages—Technology, Culture, and Trade.” Retrieved from: https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/rise-europe-middle-ages/ PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 3 ▪ Osler, M., Spencer, B., & Brush, S., (2019). “Scientific Revolution.” Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution ▪ Vidal-Naquet, P. (ed.). (1992). The Harper Atlas of World History. Harper Collins, New York. ▪ Zalta, Edward. (2017). "Scientific Revolutions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/scientific-revolutions Additional Readings: ▪ Buckley, C., and Boudot E., (2017). The evolution of an ancient technology. R. Soc open sci.4:170208. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.170208 ▪ Kelty, Christopher. (2009). “The Impact of the Scientific Revolution: A Brief History of the Experimental Method in the 17th Century.” Retrieved from: https://cnx.org/contents/Obp6KDON@1/The-Impact-of-the-Scientific-Revolution-A-Brief- History-of-the-Experimental-Method-in-the-17th-Century ▪ “Scientific Revolutions.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Nov 28, 2017 Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-revolutions/ ▪ The Medieval Sourcebook, located at the Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies, includes thousands of sources including full text articles, law texts, saint's lives, maps and other sources related to the Medieval Age. https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 4 Module Outline ❖ Timeline of Human Development I. Early Technology A. The Stone Age D. The Iron Age A.1. Paleolithic Period D.1. The Persian Empire A.2. Mesolithic Period D.2. Persia: Cradle of Civilization A.3. Neolithic Period E. The Greek Civilization B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in E.1. Greek Agriculture Hunter-Gatherer Tools E.2. Greek Architecture C. The Bronze Age E.3. Some Notable Greeks in the Field C.1. What is the Fertile Crescent? of Science & Technology C.2. Mesopotamia Civilization F. The Romans C.2.1. The Sumerians F.1. The Roman Engineering C.2.2. Sumerian Inventions F.2. The Roman Architecture C.2.3. The Akkadians F.3. Some Notable Romans in the Field C.2.4. The Assyrians of Science & Technology C.2.5. The Assyrians Contributions F.4. The Ancient View of Universe C.2.6. The Babylonians F.5. The Fall of Rome C.2.7. Contributions of Babylonian Civilization C.2.8. The Egyptians C.2.9. Ancient Egyptians Science & Technology PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 5 II. The Middle Ages IV. The Scientific Revolution A. The Teutonic Tribe A. New Methods B. The Middle Ages Arts and Architecture A.1. The Scientific Method C. Population Growth in the Middle Ages B. New Ideas D. Technology in the Middle Ages drives Growth C. The Emergence of Modern E. New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages Astronomy F. Mining and Heavy Industry in the Middle Ages D. Unifying Astronomy and Physics G. The Byzantine Empire E. Medicine G.1. Byzantine Science and Technology F. Other Scientific Advances G.2. Architecture G.3. Mathematics V. Activity 1: “A picture is worth a G.4. Astronomy thousand words: Using Infographic to G.5. Medicine and Botany illustrate Science and Technology development through the ages” III. The Renaissance A. Humanism B. Renaissance Geniuses C. Renaissance Exploration C.1. Famous Journey & Expedition that Changed the World D. The Reformation E. End of Renaissance PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 6 ❖A Timeline of Human Development Homo habilis (Skillful human) Lived 1.5 to 2,4 million years ago Also called “Handy Man” Used stones as simple tools and ate a variety of foods Homo erectus (Upright human) Lived 300,000 to 1.6 million years ago Used fire Made stone axes and chopping tools Homo sapiens (Wise human) Lived 30,000 to 230,000 years ago Could speak Made more complicated tools Also called “the Neanderthals” Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern human) Have been around for 120,000 years Became more advanced about 40,000 years ago PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 7 I. Early Technology A. The Stone Age (2.5 mya – 3,000 BC) ▪ Because of the great span of time involved, the Stone Age is divided into three periods: Paleolithic (or Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (or Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (or New Stone Age). ▪ These three periods refer to the gradual progress of tool-making from the earliest coarse pebble tools to more advanced and refined tools. ▪ During these era an eventual transformation was seen from a culture of hunting and gathering to farming and food production. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 8 A.1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) 2.5 mya-10,000 BC Early humans lived in caves or simple huts or tepees and were hunters and gatherers. They used basic stone and bone tools, as well as crude stone axes, for hunting birds and wild animals. They cooked their prey, including woolly mammoths, dear and bison, using The early humans of Paleolithic controlled fire. They also fished period that dwell in the caves are and collected berries, fruit and hunters and gatherers. nuts. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 9  A.2. Mesolithic Period – (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC) Humans used small stone tools, now also polished and sometimes crafted with points and attached to antlers, bone or wood to serve as spears and arrows. They often lived nomadically in camps near rivers and other bodies of water. Agriculture was introduced People of the Mesolithic period use during this time, which led to polished pointed tools during more permanent settlements in hunting villages. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 10 A.3. Neolithic Period (8,000 BC – 3,000 BC) Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture and food production. They domesticated animals and cultivated cereal grains. They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and tilling the land and started to settle in the plains. Advancements were made not only in tools but also in farming, home construction and art, including pottery, sewing and weaving. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 11  A Neolithic period settlement with domesticated animals During the Neolithic period, humans learned how to cultivate cereals PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 12 B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in Hunter-Gatherer Tools o Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools): 2.6 million years ago These were basically stone cores with flakes removed from them to create a sharpened edge that could be used for cutting, chopping or scraping. One of the earliest examples of stone tools found in Ethiopia o Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools): 1.6 million years ago An Acheulan handaxe Named for St. Acheul on the Somme River in from France, where the first tools from this tradition Swakscombe were found in the mid-19th century. These tool is , Kent used for striking flakes off longer rock cores to shape them into thinner less rounded implements. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 13  A new kind of knapping (Levallois technique): 400,000 to 200,00 years ago Known as the Levallois, or prepared-core technique, it involved striking pieces off a stone core to produce a tortoise-shell like shape, then carefully striking the core again in such a way that a single large, sharp flake can be broken off. Stone tools found in a The method could produce numerous knife-like Neanderthal flint workshop tools of predictable size and shape. discovered in Poland Cutting blades (Aurignacian industry): 80,000 to 40,000 years ago The central innovation of this type of tool making involved detaching long rectangular flakes from a stone core to form blades, which proved more effective at cutting. The blades’ shape also made them easier to attach to a handle, which gave An Aurignacian blade shown from greater leverage and increased efficiency. three angles PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 14  Small, sharp micro blades (Magdalenian culture): 11,000 to 17,000 years ago characterized by small tools known as geometric microliths, or stone blades or flakes that have been shaped into triangles, crescents and other geometric forms. When attached to handles made of bone or antler, these could easily be used as projectile weapons, as well as for woodworking and food preparation purposes. Microliths were added to Late Magdalenian bone tools like these, including harpoons and projectile points. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 15  Axes, celts, chisels (Neolithic tools): around 12,000 years ago These tools, including axes, adzes, celts, chisels and gouges, were not only more pleasing to look at; they were also more efficient to use and easier to sharpen when they became dull. allowed humans to clear wide swathes of Jadeite axes from the woodland to create their agricultural Neolithic Period in central settlements. Europe. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 16 C. The Bronze Age (3,000 B.C. to 1,300 B.C.) Metalworking advances were made, as bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was discovered. Now used for weapons and tools, the harder metal replaced its stone predecessors, and helped spark innovations including the ox-drawn plow and the wheel. Village life in Grimspound, a late Bronze Age settlement situated on Dartmoor in Devon, England. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 17  This time period also brought advances in architecture and art, including the invention of the potter’s wheel, and textiles— clothing consisted of mostly wool items such as skirts, kilts, tunics and cloaks. Home dwellings morphed to so-called roundhouses, consisting of a circular stone wall with a thatched or turf roof, complete with a fireplace or hearth, and more villages and cities began to form. Humans may have started smelting copper as early as 6,000 B.C. in the Fertile Crescent, a region often called “the cradle of civilization” and a historical area of the Middle East where agriculture and the world’s first cities emerged. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 18 C.1. What Is the Fertile Crescent? The Fertile Crescent, often called the "Cradle of Civilization", is the region in the Middle East which curves, like a quarter-moon shape, from the Persian Gulf, through modern-day southern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and northern Egypt. The region has long been recognized for its vital contributions to world culture stemming from the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant which included the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians, all of whom were responsible for the development of civilization. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 19  Virtually every area of human knowledge was advanced by these people, including: Science and Technology Writing and Literature Religion Agricultural Techniques Mathematics and Astronomy Astrology and the Development of the Zodiac Domestication of Animals Long-Distance Trade Medical Practices (including dentistry) The Wheel The Concept of Time States of the Fertile Crescent PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 20 C.2. Mesopotamian Civilization Is an ancient, historical region that lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria, Turkey and Iran. Part of the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia was home to the earliest known human civilizations. Scholars believe the Agricultural Revolution started here. The earliest occupants of Mesopotamia lived in circular dwellings made of mud and brick along the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. They began to practice agriculture by domesticating sheep and pigs around 11,000 to 9,000 B.C. Domesticated plants, including flax, wheat, barley and lentils, first appeared around 9,500 B.C. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 21 Map of Mesopotamia. Shown are Washukanni, Nineveh, Hatra, Assur, Nuzi, Palmyra, Mari, Sippar, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Isin, Lagash, Uruk, Charax Spasinu and Ur, from north to south. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 22  Some of the earliest evidence of farming comes from the archaeological site of Tell Abu Hureyra, a small village located along the Euphrates River in modern Syria. The village was inhabited from roughly 11,500 to 7,000 B.C. Inhabitants initially hunted gazelle and other game before beginning to harvest wild grains around 9,700 BCE. Several large stone tools for grinding grain have been found at the site. One of the oldest known Mesopotamian cities, Nineveh (near Mosul in modern Iraq), may have been settled as early as 6,000 B.C. Sumerian civilization arose in the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley around 5,000 B.C. In addition to farming and cities, ancient Mesopotamian societies developed irrigation and aqueducts, temples, pottery, early systems of banking and credit, property ownership and the first codes of law. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 23 C.2.1. The Sumerian Sumer was first settled by humans from 4500 to 4000 B.C., though it is probable that some settlers arrived much earlier. This early population—known as the Ubaid people—was notable for strides in the development of civilization such as farming and raising cattle, weaving textiles, working with carpentry and pottery and even enjoying beer. Villages and towns were built around Ubaid farming communities. The people known as Sumerians were in control of the area by 3000 B.C. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 24  Their culture was comprised of a group of city-states, including Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, Ur and the very first true city, Uruk. At its peak around 2800 BC, the city had a population between 40,000 and 80,000 people living between its six miles of defensive walls, making it a contender for the largest city in the world. Each city-state of Sumer was surrounded by a wall, with villages settled just outside and distinguished by the worship of local deities. Map of Ancient Sumerian Empire PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 25 C.2.2. Sumerian Invention Mass-Produced Pottery Other ancient people made pottery by hand, but the Sumerians were the first to develop the turning wheel, a device which allowed them to mass-produce it. That enabled them to churn out large numbers of items such as containers for workers’ rations, sort of the ancient forerunner of Tupperware. Bowl from the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 26  Writing The Sumerians were the first to develop a writing system. Either way, it’s clear that they were using written communication by 2800 B.C. But they didn’t set out to write great literature or record their history, but rather to keep track of the goods that they were making and selling. Scribes used sharpened reeds to scratch the symbols into wet clay, An early writing sample which dried to form tablets. The system from Mesopotamia using of writing became known as cuneiform, pictographs to create a record and as Kramer noted, it was borrowed of food supplies. by subsequent civilizations and used across the Middle East for 2,000 years. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 27  Hydraulic Engineering The Sumerians figured out how to collect and channel the overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers—and the rich silt that it contained—and then use it to water and fertilize their farm fields. They designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed of reeds, palm trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or closed to regulate the flow of water. A Mesopotamian relief showing the agricultural importance of the rivers. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 28  The Chariot The Sumerians didn’t invent wheeled vehicles, but they probably developed the first two-wheeled chariot in which a driver drove a team of animals. The Sumerians had such carts for transportation in the 3000s B.C., but they were probably used for ceremonies or by the military, rather than as a means to get around the countryside, where the rough terrain would have made wheeled travel difficult. Scale model of a simple two- wheeled chariot which was invented by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 29  The Plow The Sumerians invented the plow, a vital technology in farming. They even produced a manual that gave farmers detailed instructions on how to use various types of plows. They specified the prayer that should be recited to pay homage to Ninkilim, the goddess of field rodents, in order to protect the grain from Imitation of a Sumerian plow. being eaten. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 30  Textile Mills While other cultures in the Middle East gathered wool and used it to weave fabric for clothing, the Sumerians were the first to do weaving on an industrial scale. The Sumerians’ innovation was to turn their temples into huge factories. They were the first to cross kin lines and form larger working organizations for making textiles—the predecessors of modern manufacturing companies. A Mesopotamian woman weaving. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 31  Mass-Produced Bricks An archaeological site in Mari, Syria (modern Tell Hariri) that was an ancient Sumerian city on the western bank of Euphrates river. To make up for a shortage of stones and timber for building houses and temples, the Sumerians created molds for making bricks out of clay. While they weren’t the first to use clay as a building material but their innovation is their ability to produce bricks in large amounts, and put them together on a large scale. Their buildings might not have been as durable as stone ones, but they were able to build more of them, and create larger cities. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 32  Metallurgy The Sumerians were some of the earliest people to use copper to make useful items, ranging from spearheads to chisels and razors. They also made art with copper, including dramatic panels depicting fantastical animals such as an eagle with a lion’s head. Sumerian metallurgists used furnaces heated by reeds and controlled the temperature with a bellows that The lion-headed eagle made of could be worked with their hands or copper, gold, and lapis lazuli by feet. Sumerian civilization. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 33  Mathematics Cuneiform script, developed by the Sumerians. Primitive people counted using simple methods, such as putting notches on bones, but it was the Sumerians who developed a formal numbering system based on units of 60. At first, they used reeds to keep track of the units, but eventually, with the development of cuneiform, they used vertical marks on the clay tablets. Their system helped lay the groundwork for the mathematical calculations of civilizations that followed. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 34  C.2.3. The Akkadians Located in the area to the north of Sumer, Akkadia became established and a dominant force in Mesopotamia around 3000BC. The Akkadian empire is thought to be the first dynastic rulership to have existed. It took over control of Sumer and the Levant at around 2300BC. The Akkadians created the first united empire in Ancient Mesopotamia. It was a hereditary monarchy, meaning that the country was ruled by a King who was succeeded by his sons upon his death. The Akkadian king was credited with many administrative firsts. These include Map of the Akkadian Empire the year name system and a unified The Akkadians spanned into parts of system of weights and measures. Syria, Iran, Jordan, Turkey, Kuwait However, he had difficulty controlling and possibly even further to the their empire and faced frequent south and into Cyprus. The empire uprisings, especially among the Sumerian would eventually collapse city-states. sometime after 2150bc, just a few hundred years after it was founded. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 35  C.2.4. The Assyrians Under the Assyrian Civilization, ancient Mesopotamia expanded from the Persian Gulf to Egypt, to its Western borders of modern-day Turkey. After the Akkadian empire collapsed, the Assyrians were the powerhouse of Mesopotamia. For over 1400 years, Assyria had control of parts of Egypt, Turkey, and modern day Iraq. It is thought the civilization became wealthy enough to develop armies and warriors through trading goods with Anatolia (located in modern-day Turkey). Of all the cultures of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, Assyria is considered to be the greatest. It developed advanced military and bureaucratic systems, which enabled it to expand and control much of the ancient Map of the Assyrian Empire world. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 36 C.2.5. The Assyrian Contributions Agricultural Technology The Assyrians were quite innovative when it came to agriculture, which was necessary since they lived in an area where it was either extremely dry or flooded most of the time. To make up for this, they built extensive canal systems out of mud. The canals would collect the rainwater, helping to prevent flooding in rainy seasons. In dry seasons, the farmers could release the stored water onto fields by digging into them. This was carried out by flood defense walls, which were used along the edges of the canals to guide the water to where it was needed. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 37  Jerwan aqueduct, completed in 690 BC. Because of the importance of agriculture to the society, canals were built along the edges of all farms and were well kept. Water systems were built to supply water to cities by building slopes to conduct water from the hills to the plains. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 38 Assyrian Architecture Major architectural works in ancient Assyria did not deviate much from the Babylonians. The Assyrians built their temples and palaces primarily from stone and typically in a ziggurat, or platform structure. Unlike the Babylonians, however, the Assyrians' homes were built mostly from stone rather than clay or mud brick. Homes were rectangular, with beams on top to support an earthen roof. This structure and the lack of openings besides a door made the homes great for defense - necessary for such a warring people. Mud-brick ziggurats constructed by 2000 BC were in many Sumerian cities. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 39 C.2.6. The Babylonians Babylonia was a state in ancient Mesopotamia. The city of Babylon, whose ruins are located in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years ago as a small port town on the Euphrates River. It grew into one of the largest cities of the ancient world under the rule of Hammurabi. Hammurabi turned Babylon into a rich, powerful and influential city. He created one of the world’s earliest and most complete written legal codes. Known as the Code of Hammurabi, it helped Babylon surpass other cities in the region. Babylonia, however, was short-lived. The empire fell apart after Hammurabi’s death and reverted back to a small kingdom for several centuries. Babylonia at the time of Hammurabi PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 40 C..2.7. Contributions of the Babylonian Civilization Babylonian mathematics Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited. Babylonian mathematics remained constant, in character and content, for nearly two millennia. In contrast to the scarcity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, our knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from some 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed while the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. The majority of recovered clay tablets date from 1800 to 1600 BC, and cover topics which include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations and the Pythagorean theorem. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation to accurate to five decimal places. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 41  Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 with annotations. The diagonal displays an approximation of the square root of 2 in four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures. Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a wedge-tipped reed stylus to make a mark on a soft clay tablet which would be exposed in the sun to harden to create a permanent record. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 42 Babylonian Architecture Among of this artistic progress it can be identified the improvement of use given in architecture to the arch and the dome during the Babylonian Empire; they were already used previously but was perfected during the Neo Babylonian Empire. This is the time of the construction of the fabulous palaces of Nebuchadnezzar. Rebuilt Walls of the Palace of King Rebuilt Babylon Coliseum Stairs Nebuchadneszzar (Present Day Iraq) (Present Day Iraq) PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 43  Features of art in Babylonian culture are closely related to building materials available in their environment. The stone was scarce of course but the mud, abundant. Barely existed corpulent trees to build the beams needed to use them effectively in the construction of architectural structure. Following these limitations, the buildings are essentially cemented with very similar stone brick and adobe as the Sumerians did. The arch and the dome roof are used mainly in the construction of large palaces. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 44  The adobe was used for terraces and thick external walls. The walls were made of adobe or molded bricks (whose rear mounting made it possible to build huge walls. Large ceramic reliefs made in terracotta and stone pieces containing in some case inscriptions were used, receiving the name of kuduroes this were stone blocks, generally in black diorite, which were intended to delimit farms. The inscriptions made in this stones to describe the boundaries of the property are intend also to throw terrifying spells for those who try to change or alter their limited boundaries. The images of the gods or animals representing them are carved in the relief so that they are more imposing to the offenders who try to invade the property. In Babylonian architecture is observed essentially simplicity in the design of the structures due to difficult terrain and poor materials. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 45 The Hanging Gardens of Babylon The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were the fabled gardens which adorned the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE). One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, they are the only wonder whose existence is disputed amongst historians. Some scholars claim the gardens were actually at Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian Empire, some stick with the ancient writers and await archaeology to provide positive proof, and still others believe they are merely a figment of the ancient imagination. Archaeology at Babylon itself and ancient Babylonian texts are silent on the matter, but ancient writers describe the gardens as if they were at Nebuchadnezzar’s capital and still in existence in Hellenistic times. The exotic nature of the gardens compared to the more familiar Greek items on the list and the mystery surrounding their location and disappearance have made the Hanging Gardens of Babylon the most A representation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the fabled gardens which captivating of all the Seven Wonders. possibly adorned the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE). A 16th century CE engraving by Dutch artist Martin Heemskerck. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 46  C.2.8 The Egyptians (3100 B.C. to 332 B.C.) For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs Map of that have only recently been ancient deciphered. The picture that Egypt emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 47 C.2.9 Ancient Egyptian Science & Technology Engineering & Construction The great temples of ancient Egypt arose from the same technological skill one sees on the small scale of household goods. The central value observed in creating any of these goods or structures was a careful attention to detail. The Egyptians are noted in many aspects of their culture as a very conservative society, and this adherence to a certain way of accomplishing tasks can clearly be seen in their construction of the pyramids and other monuments. The creation of an obelisk, for example, seems to have always involved the exact same procedure performed in precisely the same way. The quarrying and transport of obelisks are well documented (though how the immense monuments were raised is not) and shows a strict adherence to a standard procedure. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 48  Egyptian Obelisk in Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara Karnak (1493–1482 BCE) (2670-2650 BCE) PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 49  The Step Pyramid of Djoser was successfully built according to the precepts of the vizier Imhotep and when his plans were deviated from by Sneferu during of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613- c. 2181 BCE), the result was the so-called 'collapsed pyramid' at Meidum. Sneferu returned to Imhotep's original engineering plans for his next projects and was able to create his Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid at Dashur, advancing the art of pyramid building which is epitomized in the Great Pyramid at Giza. The Great Pyramids of Giza (2550 to 2490 BCE) PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 50 Agriculture & Architecture Ancient Egypt was an agricultural society and so naturally developed innovations to help cultivate the land. Among the many inventions or innovations of the ancient Egyptians was the ox-drawn plow and improvements in irrigation. The ox-drawn plow was designed in two gauges: heavy and light. The heavy plow went first and cut the furrows while the lighter plow came behind turning up the earth. Once the field was plowed then workers with hoes broke up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows with seed. To press the seed into the furrows, livestock was driven across the field and the furrows were closed. All of this work would have been for nothing, however, if the seeds were denied sufficient water and so regular irrigation of the land was extremely Wooden model of a man important. ploughing with oxen PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 51  Egyptian irrigation techniques were so effective they were implemented by the cultures of Greece and Rome. New irrigation techniques were introduced during the Second Intermediate Period by the people known as the Hyksos, who settled in Avaris in Lower Egypt, and the Egyptians improved upon them; notably through the expanded use of the canal. The yearly inundation of the Nile overflowing its banks and depositing rich soil throughout the valley was essential to Egyptian life but irrigation canals were necessary to carry water to outlying farms and villages as well as to maintain even saturation of crops near the river. Present day irrigation system built by ancient Egyptians along the Nile river Egyptian irrigation system PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 52  Shadoofs: The ancient Egyptians also used water wheels. The water wheels worked the shadoofs. A shadoof was simply a counterweight system, a long pole with a bucket on one end and a weight on the other. Buckets were dropped into the Nile, filled with water, and raised with water wheels. Then oxen swung the pole so that the water could be emptied into narrow canals or waterways that were used to irrigate the crops. It was a clever system, and it worked very well. A shadoof was used to raise water above the level of the Nile. Nilometers: They also invented what is called a nilometer. A nilometer was used to predict flood levels. This instrument was a method of marking the height of the Nile over the years. Nilometers were spaced along the Nile River. They acted as an early warning system, alerting these early people that waters were not as high as usual, so they could prepare for a drought or for The nilometer on Elephantine Island, Aswan, unusually high flood waters. consists of stairs and staff gauges. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 53  Rameses II (1303-1213 B.C.) made an outstanding architectural marvel, the Abu Simbel. which was precisely designed so that, twice a year on 21 February and 21 October, the sun shines directly into the sanctuary of the temple to illuminate the Abu Simbel (1244 B.C.) statues of Ramesses and the god Amun. This kind of precision in design and construction can be seen in temples throughout Egypt which were all built to mirror the afterlife. The courtyard of the temple with its reflecting pool would symbolize the Lake of Flowers in the next world and the temple itself would stand for various other aspects of the afterlife and the final paradise of the Field of Reeds. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 54 Medicine & Dentistry Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. The three best-known works dealing with medical issues are the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE), and the London Medical Papyrus (c. 1629 BCE) all of which, to one degree or another, prescribe the use of spells in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a significant degree of medical knowledge. The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as trauma, cancer, heart disease, depression, dermatology, gastrointestinal distress, and many others. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical techniques and is thought to have been written for triage surgeons in field hospitals. This work shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and physiology. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 55  The London Medical Papyrus combines practical medical skill with magical spells for the treatment of conditions ranging from eye problems to miscarriages. The London Medical Papyrus PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 56 D. The Iron Age (1200 B.C. and 900 B.C.) During the Iron Age, people across much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making tools and weapons from iron and steel. The discovery of ways to heat and forge iron kicked off the Iron Age (roughly 1,300 B.C. to 900 B.C.). At the time, the metal was seen as more precious than gold, and wrought iron (which would be replaced by steel with the advent of smelting iron) was easier to manufacture than bronze. Along with mass production of steel tools and weapons, the age saw even further advances in architecture, with four- room homes, some complete with stables for animals, joining more rudimentary hill forts, as well as royal palaces, temples and other religious structures. Early city planning also took place, with blocks of homes being erected along paved or cobblestone streets and water systems put into place. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 57 D.1. Persian Empire During the Iron Age in the Near East, nomadic pastoralists who raised sheep, goats and cattle on the Iranian plateau began to develop a state that would become known as Persia. The Persians established their empire at a time after humans had learned to make steel. Steel weapons were sharper and stronger than earlier bronze or stone weapons. The ancient Persians also fought on horseback. They may have been the first civilization to develop an armored cavalry in which horses and riders were completely covered in steel armor. The First Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 B.C., became one of the largest empires in Map of Ancient history, stretching from the Persia Balkans of Eastern Europe to the Indus Valley in India. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 58 D.2. Persia: Cradle of Science & Technology Persia was a cradle of science in ancient times. Persian scientists contributed to the current understanding of nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. Persians made important contributions to algebra and chemistry, invented the wind-power machine, and the first distillation of alcohol. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 59  Qanat A water management system used for irrigation originated in pre- Achaemenid Persia. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad which, after 2,700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. The Persian Qanat: Aerial View, Jupar, Bagh-e Shahzadeh (Mahan) © S.H. Rashedi The qanat water system of ancient Persia PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 60 Battery Persian philosophers and inventors may have created the first batteries (sometimes known as the Baghdad Battery) in the Parthian or Sassanid eras. Some have suggested that the batteries may have been used medicinally. Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating-- transferring a thin layer of metal to another metal surface--a technique still used today and the focus of a common classroom experiment. Baghdad Battery in the National Museum of Iraq PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 61 Windmill Wind wheels were developed by the Babylonians ca. 1700 BC to pump water for irrigation. In the 7th century, Persian engineers in Greater Iran developed a more advanced wind-power machine, the windmill, building upon the basic model developed by the Babylonians. The earliest known windmill design dates back 3000 years to ancient Persia where they View of the ancient - more than 1000 years were used to old - Persian windmills at Nashtifan, grind grain Khorasan, Iran, some of which are operational. and pump water. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 62  Mathematics The 12th century mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa-al- Khwarazmi created the Logarithm table, developed algebra and expanded upon Persian and Indian arithmetic systems. Muhammad Ibn Musa-al- The works of Khwarazmi Khwarazmi exercised a profound influence on the development of mathematical thought in the medieval West. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 63 Medicine The practice and study of medicine in Iran has a long and prolific history. Situated at the crossroads of the East and West, Persia was often involved in developments in ancient Greek and Indian medicine; pre- and post-Islamic Iran have been involved in medicine as well. For example, the first teaching hospital where medical students methodically practiced on patients under the supervision of physicians was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian Empire. The idea of xenotransplantation dates to the days of Achaemenidae (the Achaemenian dynasty), as evidenced by engravings of many mythologic chimeras still present in Persepolis. Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments of the headache in medieval Persia can be ascertained. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 64  These documents give detailed and precise clinical information on the different types of headaches. The medieval physicians listed various signs and symptoms, apparent causes, and hygienic and dietary rules for prevention of headaches. The medieval writings are both accurate and vivid, and they provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of headaches. In the 10th century work of Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes a Caesarean section performed on Rudaba, during which a special wine agent was prepared by a Zoroastrian priest and used to produce unconsciousness for the operation. Although largely mythical in content, the passage illustrates working knowledge of anesthesia in ancient Persia. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 65 Astronomy In 1000 AD, Biruni wrote an astronomical encyclopedia which discussed the possibility that the earth Abu Arrayhan might rotate around the sun. Muhammad ibn Ahmad This was before Tycho Brahe drew the al-Biruni first maps of the sky, using stylized animals to depict the constellations. In the tenth century, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi cast his eyes upwards to the awning of stars overhead and was the first to record a galaxy out with our own. Gazing at the Andromeda galaxy he called it a “little cloud” --an apt description of the slightly wispy An illustration from al-Biruni's appearance of our galactic neighbor. astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 66  Physics Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haytham is known in the West as Alhazen, born in 965 in Persia and dying Abu Ali al- in 1039 in Egypt. He is known as the father of Hassan ibn optics for his writings on, and experiments with, al-Haytham lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection. He correctly stated that vision results from light that is reflected into the eye by an object, not emitted by the eye itself and reflected back, as Aristotle believed. The structure He solved the problem of finding the locus of of the human points on a spherical mirror from which light will eye accordin be reflected to an observer. From his studies of g to Ibn al- refraction, he determined that the atmosphere Haytham. has a definite height and that twilight is caused Note the by refraction of solar radiation from beneath the depiction of the optic horizon. chiasm. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 67 E. The Greek Civilization The Ancient Greeks are seen, in the west, as our intellectual forefathers. From Greece was born philosophy, drama, western artistic aesthetics, geometry, natural science, mathematics, astronomy and architecture. A representation of an ancient Greek City PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 68 E.1. Agriculture The prosperity of the majority of Greek city-states was based on agriculture and the ability to produce the necessary surplus which allowed some citizens to pursue other trades and pastimes and to create a quantity of exported goods so that they could be exchanged for necessities the community lacked. Cereals, olives, and wine were the three most produced foodstuffs suited as they are to the Mediterranean climate. With the process of Greek colonization in such places as Asia Minor and Magna Graecia Greek agricultural practice and products spread around the Mediterranean. The people who did the most agriculture work were people in the middle class social class, also known as the Perioeci. These people were typically farmers or peasants. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 69  emmer durum hulled barley The most widely cultivated crop was wheat - especially emmer (triticum dicoccum) and durum (triticum durum) – and hulled barley (hordeum vulgare). Millet was grown in areas with greater rainfall. Gruel from barley and barley-cakes were more common than bread made from wheat. Pulses were grown such as broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils. Vines to make wine and olives to produce oil completed the four main types of crops in the Greek world. Fruit (e.g. figs, apples, pears, pomegranates, quinces, and medlars), vegetables (e.g. cucumbers, onions, garlic, and salads) and nuts (e.g. almonds and walnuts) were grown by many private households. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 70  Equipment used in Greek agriculture was basic with digging, weeding, and multiple ploughing done by hand using wooden or iron-tipped ploughs, mattocks, and hoes (there were no spades). Richer farmers had oxen to help plough their fields. Sickles were used to harvest crops, which were then winnowed using a flat shovel and baskets. Grains were then threshed on a stone floor which was trampled on by livestock (and which might also have dragged sledges for the purpose too). Grapes were crushed underfoot in vats while olives were crushed in stone presses. olive oil extractor juicer iron-tipped ploughs used in farming PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 71 E.2. Architecture Greek architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings in the entire Ancient World and some of their structures, such as temples, theatres, and stadia, would become staple features of towns and cities from antiquity onwards. In addition, the Greek concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and harmony in their buildings would go on to greatly influence architects in the Roman world and provide the foundation for the classical architectural orders which would dominate the western world from the Renaissance to the present day. The Greeks certainly had a preference for marble, at least for their public buildings. Initially, though, wood would have been used for not only such basic architectural elements as columns but the entire buildings themselves. Early 8th century BCE temples were so constructed and had thatch roofs. From the late 7th century BCE, temples, in particular, slowly began to be converted into more durable stone edifices; some even had a mix of the two materials. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 72  Some scholars have argued that certain decorative features of stone column capitals and elements of the entablature evolved from the skills of the carpenter displayed in more ancient, wooden architectural elements. The stone of choice was either limestone protected by a layer of marble dust stucco or even better, pure white marble. Also, carved stone was often polished with chamois to provide resistance to water and give a bright finish. The best marble came from Naxos, Paros, and Mt. Pentelicon near Athens. East facade of the Parthenon, Athens, 5th century BCE. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 73 Some of Ancient Greek Architectural Remains Marble column from the Temple Marble akroterion of Terracotta architectural tile of Artemis at Sardisca. 300 B.C. the grave 6th century B.C. monument of Timotheos and Nikonca. 350–325 B.C. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 74  One of the cultural developments of Greek thought was the museum, originally the Temple of the Muses Modern Remains of Temple of the Muses PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 75  The museum became part of the palace, “the palace of culture,” and later a kind of medieval college and research institute. The development of the concept of organized centers of learning (the University) descend from this period. Reconstruction of the Greek Discussion of ideas is perceived Parthenon to happen inside the Parthenon PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 76 E.3. Some Notable Greeks in the field of Science and Technology Thales of Miletus (c. 620 B.C.E.—c. 546 B.C.E.) Is considered by some to be the "first scientist“ Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of natural philosophy. Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating almost all areas of knowledge, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics. He proposed theories to explain many of the events of nature, the primary substance, the support of the earth, and the cause of change. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 77 Democritus of Abdera (ca. 470–362 BCE) Founder of the Atomic Theory. Also had theories on the nature of plants; thought plant diversity was due to differences in the atoms of which they were composed. The contemplating Democritus PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 78  Hippocrates (460–359 BCE) Disciple of Democritus Greek physician who is now considered the “Father of Medicine.” Hippocrates, considered the originator of a Greek school of healing, was the first to clearly expound the concept that diseases had natural causes. Various works attributed to him and his school is contained in the Hippocratic Collection, which includes The Hippocratic Oath, Aphorisms, and various medical works. He was an expert in diagnosis, predicting the cause of disease. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 79  Hippocrates particularly noted the influence of food and diet on health, recommending moderation. In the work On Ancient Medicine, differences in individual response to food are noted such that some can eat cheese to satiety while others do not bear it well, a diagnosis of lactose intolerance. The use of drugs was not ignored and between 200 and 400 herbs were mentioned by the school of Hippocrates. A copy of Hippocratic Collection Hippocrates, diagnosing a patient PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 80  “Let your food be your medicine and your medicine be your food… Leave your drugs in the chemist’s pot you can cure the patient with food” -Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine.” -420 BC PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 81 Plato (427–327 BCE) Considered the pre-eminent Greek philosopher, known for his Dialogues and for founding his Academy north of Athens, traditionally considered the first university in the western world. The Akademia or the Academy was established outside the city limits of old Athens and offered a wide range of subjects taught by experts in their field. The Academy was thought to be the principal college in Europe that attracted scholars. Plato played a vital role in encouraging the Greek intelligentsia to regard science as a theory. His Academy taught arithmetic as part of philosophy, as Pythagoras had done, and the first 10 years of a course at the Academy included the study of geometry, astronomy, and music. Plato has been described as the “producer of mathematicians,” and his Academy boasted some the most conspicuous mathematicians of the ancient world such as Eudoxus, Theaetetus, and Archytas. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 82  Aristotle (384–323 BCE) of Macedonia proposed a coherent and common- sense vision of the natural world that stood for 2,000 years studied and wrote on a cosmology, physics, biology, anatomy and logic. placed greater emphasis on observation than Plato, but still not experimental tutored Alexander the Great PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 83 Aristotle’s writings includes descriptive writings in biology: Histories of Animals, Generation of Animals, Parts of Animals He developed the concept of life force or vitalism, the idea that life is due to a force beside the ordinary workings of chemistry and physics. A compilation of Aristotle’s writing PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 84 2020-2021 MSU-GSC Theophrastus of Eresus, city of Lesbos (371–287 BCE) The founder of the botanical sciences and thus known as the “Father of Botany” Writer of 227 treatises, (on religion, politics, ethics, education, rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, logic, meteorology, natural history; had over 2000 disciples or students, averaging 60 per year). PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 85 Two botanical works survived: History of Plants and Causes of Plants History of Plants (Historia de plantes) Largely descriptive, Distinguishes parts of plants. Nine books: 1. parts of plants and their nature; classification; 2. propagation (especially trees); 3. wild trees; 4. geographic botany, trees related to districts; 5. timber of various trees; 6. Undershrubs; 7. herbaceous plants; 8. cereals, pulses, summer crops; 9. juices of plants. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 86 Causes of Plants (De causis plantarum) More philosophic but still full of facts. Six books: 1. Generation and propagation of plants; 2. Things which help the increase of plants; 3. Plantation of shrubs and preparation of the soil, viticulture; 4. Goodness of seeds and their degeneration; 5. Diseases; 6. Savors and odors. A detailed collection of Theophrastrus writings PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 87 Greek natural philosophy is sometimes called "pre-scientific", since it relied on contemplation or observation, but not experimentation PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 88 F. The Romans Roman civilization was built upon the tradition of Greek natural philosophy the Romans are better known for engineering than theoretical science Building of Roman Aqueduct 312 B.C. Ancient Roman Colosseum to A.D. 226. A.D. 70 and 72 PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 89  F.1. The Roman Engineering The Romans were responsible, through the application and development of available machines, for an important technological transformation: the widespread introduction of rotary motion. The Roman rotary wheel 3rd Century BC PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 90  This was exemplified in the use of the treadmill for powering cranes and other heavy lifting operations, the introduction of rotary water-raising devices for irrigation works (a scoop wheel powered by a treadmill), and the development of the waterwheel as a prime mover. Construction of the Roman Watermill around1st century BC PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 91  The 1st-century-BCE Roman engineer Vitruvius gave an account of watermills, and by the end of the Roman era many were in operation. The present day Roman watermill constructed around 1st century BCE still in use today Vitruvius PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 92 F.3. The Roman Architecture The Romans copied the Greek style for most ceremonial purposes, but in other respects they were important innovators in building technology. Greek Architecture Roman Architecture PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 93  The Roman Coloseum A.D. 70 and 72 They made extensive use of fired brick and tile as well as stone; they developed a strong cement that would set The Arch of Constantine 312 and 315 AD under water; and they explored the architectural possibilities of the arch, the vault, and the dome. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 94  They then applied these techniques in amphitheatres, aqueducts, tunnels, bridges, walls, lighthouses, and roads. Taken together, these constructional works may fairly be regarded as the primary technological achievement of the Romans. Roman Theatre of Orange (1st Tower of Hercules 2nd century AD century AD) Pont du Gard Aqueduct 1st century AD PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 95  The Romans made good quality pottery available throughout their empire through the manufacture and trade of the standardized red ware terra sigillata called terra sigillata, which was produced in large quantities at several sites in Italy and Gaul. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 96 F.3. Some Notable Romans in the field of Science and Technology Cato (b. 234 BCE) The famous orator also wrote a valuable treatise (De agricultura) which gave advice on how to run a good estate with notes on wine and oil production and various remedies for crop diseases. A copy of Cato’s book on farming PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 97 Varro (b. 116 BCE) Was the most prolific scientific author, although very little of his work survives. One exception is the Res Rusticae, which describes the best ways to manage a large estate. His other works on mathematics, geography, biology, and more, live on through his immense influence on later authors such as Vitruvius, Pliny, Augustine, and Varro’s Res Martianus Capella. Rusticae PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 98 Lucretius (b. c. 94 BCE) Wrote De rerum natura on the major Greek works of atomist philosophy and was especially interested in optics and biology. Vitruvius (1st century BCE) Wrote an influential work on architecture (De architectura) which included surveying, town planning, mathematics, principles of proportion, materials, astronomy, and mechanics. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 99  Galen (b. 129 CE) Galen’s Surgery Book Of Greek origin who became a physician to emperors after starting his career administering medical aid to gladiators. He is Galen treating an invaluable source on earlier a wounded medical matters, soldier notably Hippocrates, but was also a successful practitioner of complex surgeries himself. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 100 Claudius Ptolemy (85–165 CE) Tweaked the Plato/Aristotle cosmology to match observations of the planets Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe. People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory was supported by the Church. The Earth was the center of the Universe according to Claudius Ptolemy, whose view of the cosmos persisted for 1400 years until it was overturned — with controversy — by findings from Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 101  Ptolemaic System Also called geocentric system or geocentric model proposed by Claudius Ptolemy by assuming that Earth is stationary and at the center of the universe. Ptolemy geocentric model depicts the earth as stationary with the planets, moon, and sun moving around it in small, circular orbits called epicycles. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 102  F.4. The Ancient View of the Universe The Earth was: – immovable – the center of the universe. Everything revolved around the Earth. – This view is known as geocentric theory. Aristotle’s idea Ptolemy expanded the theory. Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center. A depiction of ancient universe and medieval structure PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 103  F.5. The Fall of Rome (in 476) Rome’s fall ended the ancient world and the Middle Ages were borne. These “Dark Ages” brought the end to much that was Roman. In western Europe, population dropped, literacy virtually disappeared, and Greek knowledge was lost. In eastern Europe, Greek knowledge was suppressed by orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine Empire (which finally fell in 1453) Sack of Rome by the Visigoths led by Vandals sacking Rome Alaric I PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 104 II. Middle Ages 476 CE -14th century The millennium between the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE and the beginning of the colonial expansion of western Europe in the late 15th century has been known traditionally as the Middle Ages, and the first half of this period consists of the five centuries of the Dark Ages (476-918 AD). Many of the institutions of the later empire survived the collapse and profoundly influenced the formation of the new civilization that developed in western Europe. The Christian church was the outstanding institution of this type. Roman conceptions of law and administration also continued to exert an influence long after the departure of the legions from the western provinces. PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 105  A. The Tuetonic Tribe Teutonic tribes who moved into a large part of Teutonic tribe western Europe did not come empty-handed, and in some respects their technology was superior to that of the Romans. these tribes appear to have been the first people with sufficiently strong iron ploughshares to undertake the systematic settlement of the forested lowlands of northern and western Europe, the heavy soils of which had frustrated the agricultural techniques of their predecessors. Land preparation before planting. Teutonic way of cultivation using strong iron ploughshares PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 2020-2021 MSU-GSC 106  The invaders came thus as colonizers. They may have been regarded as “barbarians” by the Romanized inhabitants of