Solar Energy PDF

CHAPTER I Introduction to Solar Energy COURSE OUTLINE Principles of Solar Power Photovoltaic (PV) Systems Introduction The main energy source in our earth is the sun radiation. The solar radiation amounts to 1.7 1017 W; 34% will be reflected back, 42% will be converted to heat directly, 23% i...

CHAPTER I Introduction to Solar Energy COURSE OUTLINE Principles of Solar Power Photovoltaic (PV) Systems Introduction The main energy source in our earth is the sun radiation. The solar radiation amounts to 1.7 1017 W; 34% will be reflected back, 42% will be converted to heat directly, 23% is stored in water vapor, wind water waves consumes about 1%, and plants consume 0.023% Introduction The human consumption comes from fossil fuel, nuclear energy from uranium, and geo heat. Any forms of energy are converted to heat and ultimately to radiation. Till now, there is no appreciable direct conversion path from the solar radiation to the human consumption. This is because: There is no efficient conversion machine till now, The solar radiation has a low density, The solar power is not constant. It varies daily, from season to season, and also from place to place on the earth Classification of Solar Energy Active Solar - use mechanical or electrical components, such as pumps, fans, or photovoltaic cells, to collect, store, and distribute solar energy. For example, solar panels that convert sunlight into electricity are active solar systems because they require technology to capture and utilize the energy. Passive Solar - do not involve mechanical or electrical components; instead, they rely on architectural design, building materials, and natural heat transfer processes to capture and use solar energy. Passive solar design techniques might include strategically positioning windows to let in sunlight during the winter, using thermal mass materials to absorb and store heat, and incorporating insulation to retain warmth. Classification of Solar Energy Active Solar - use mechanical or electrical components, such as pumps, fans, or photovoltaic cells, to collect, store, and distribute solar energy. For example, solar panels that convert sunlight into electricity are active solar systems because they require technology to capture and utilize the energy. Passive Solar - do not involve mechanical or electrical components; instead, they rely on architectural design, building materials, and natural heat transfer processes to capture and use solar energy. Passive solar design techniques might include strategically positioning windows to let in sunlight during the winter, using thermal mass materials to absorb and store heat, and incorporating insulation to retain warmth. General Photovoltaic System The photovoltaic (PV) system converts the solar radiation into electricity directly. The block diagram of a general PV system is shown in Fig. 1.1. General Photovoltaic System 1. The PV array: Its function is the conversion of solar radiation into electricity. It is the major unit in the system. 1. Battery storage: To be available at the absence of the solar radiation, the electric energy produced by the array must be partly stored, normally using batteries. So, the second main unit is the battery storage. 1. Power conditioning circuits: According to the nature of the load, the generated electric power must be conditioned using DC/DC converters and DC/AC inverters. General Photovoltaic System The PV array is composed of solar modules. Each module contains a matrix of solar cells connected in series and parallel to satisfy the terminal properties of the whole generator. Accordingly, the solar cell is the basic element in the PV generator. This element is the basic solar radiation converter into electricity. Mounting Structure he PV module should be designed in such a way that It can withstand rain, hail, wind and etc. The common made mistakes in selection of the mounting structures are 1. Durability of the design 2. Tilt angle - changes as the position of the sun varies every month 3. Orientation 4. PV array shading - PV arrays to be installed at a suitable location without any difficulties PV System Cost Factors Types of Photovoltaic System There are three main types of solar PV systems: grid-tied, hybrid and off-grid. Each type of solar panel system has their advantages and disadvantages and it really comes down to what the customer wants to gain from their solar panel installation.  1. On-Grid Solar System An on-grid solar system or grid tied, is a solar PV system which connects directly to the National Grid. This kind of Solar PV System is the most common amongst home and business owners. This type of system is perfect for someone who is already connected to the Grid, yet wants to reduce their carbon footprint and energy bills.  2. Hybrid Solar System Hybrid Solar systems combine the technology of Solar Panels and Solar batteries to create a green energy solution which provides a back-up supply of energy. Although a hybrid PV system remains connected to the National Grid, any solar energy generated is first stored in a home battery solution before going to the grid.  3. Off-Grid Solar System Off-grid systems tend to feature back-up generators and other types of renewable sources, to ensure your battery is charged fully all year round. This is because your off-grid system is the only means of energy supply you have. Off-grid solar systems have the ability to provide electricity even in the remotest of locations. Through an off grid solar system, you can be energy self-sufficient, with a supply of power no matter where you decide to live. References 1. Yahyaoui, I. (2018). Advances in Renewable Energies and Power Technologies Volume 1 Solar and Wind Energies. Elsevier Inc. Link https://www.deegesolar.co.uk/different_types_of_solar_pv_systems  13/09/2024 FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLAR COLLECTION AND THERMAL CONVERSION © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa COURSE OUTLINE Solar Radiation Properties of Semiconductor for Solar Cells Photovoltaic Performance and Energy Management of PV Modules © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 1  13/09/2024 SOLAR RADIATION © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa SOLAR RADIATION Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 2  13/09/2024 SOLAR RADIATION The main energy source in our earth is the sun radiation. It is the input power source to the PV generators. Direct radiation is directionally fixed, coming from the disk of the Sun. Scattered radiation is, then, the radiation that experienced scattering processes in the atmosphere. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa SOLAR RADIATION CAMPBELL-STOKES DAYLIGHT RECORDER is a type of sunshine recorder. It was invented by John Francis Campbell in 1853 and modified in 1879 by Sir George Gabriel Stokes. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 3  13/09/2024 SOLAR RADIATION Direct Radiation: Diffuse Radiation: Comes directly from the Sun to the Results from sunlight being Earth's surface without being scattered by molecules and scattered. particles in the Earth's atmosphere. Occurs when sunlight travels in a Appears as a uniform illumination straight path from the Sun to a from the entire sky, not from a specific point on the Earth's specific direction. surface. Occurs even on cloudy days when Typically strongest on clear, sunny sunlight is obstructed by cloud days when the Sun is directly cover. overhead. Provides more evenly distributed Can be focused or concentrated by light compared to direct radiation. mirrors or lenses. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa SOLAR RADIATION The two basic systems which describe sun-based radiation are: Solar radiance is an instantaneous power density in units of kW/m2. Solar insolation is the amount of electromagnetic energy (solar radiation) incident on the surface of the earth. This refers to the amount of sunlight shining down on the area under consideration. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 4  13/09/2024 SOLAR RADIANCE Solar irradiance refers to the power per unit area received from the Sun's rays at a specific location on the Earth's surface. It is typically measured in watts per square meter (W/m²) and represents the amount of solar energy striking a surface. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa SOLAR INSOLATION Solar insolation, short for "incoming solar radiation," refers to the total amount of solar energy received per unit area over a given time period. It is typically measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kWh/m²/day) or megajoules per square meter per day (MJ/m²/day). © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 5  13/09/2024 Properties of Semiconductor for Solar Cells © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS 1. Atomic Structure 2. Doping 3. Carrier Concentration 4. Transport Properties a. Drift b. Diffusion 5. Recombination and Generation 6. Optical Properties 7. Carrier Concentration in non Equilibrium © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 6  13/09/2024 PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Atomic Structure Three distinct arrangements for any material: 1. Crystalline - Where the atoms are perfectly ordered in a three- dimensional array. 2. Amorphous - Where the atoms of the material have random order compared with their original sites in the single crystal 3. Polycrystalline - Where the materials is composed of crystallographic grains join together by grain boundaries © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Doping Introducing impurities into the semiconductor to alter its conductivity by either increasing (n-type) or decreasing (p-type) the number of charge carriers. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 7  13/09/2024 PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Carrier Concentration The density of charge carriers (electrons or holes) present in the semiconductor material, which significantly influences its electrical behavior. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Transportation Properties a. Drift - Movement of charge carriers in response to an electric field. b. Diffusion - The tendency of charge carriers to move from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 8  13/09/2024 PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Recombination and Generation Processes where charge carriers combine (recombination) or are created (generation), affecting the overall carrier density and hence, the device's performance. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Optical Properties How the semiconductor material interacts with light, including absorption, reflection, and transmission, crucial for solar cells' efficiency. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 9  13/09/2024 PROPERTIES FOR SEMICONDUCTORS OF SOLAR CELLS Carrier Concentration in Non-Equilibrium The concentration of charge carriers when the semiconductor is not in thermal equilibrium, often occurring in operating conditions, impacting device behavior. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Photovoltaic Performance and Energy Management of PV Modules © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 10  13/09/2024 PV Performance Understanding Solar Photovoltaic Performance Performance ratings of PV modules are measured under standard test conditions (1,000 W/m2 of sunlight; 25°C cell temperature). In practice, however, the intensity of sunlight is usually less than 1000 W/m2, and the temperature is typically hotter than 25°C. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Understanding Solar Photovoltaic Performance Solar Resource: Although the solar resource is variable, most of the variability is predictable based on time of day, time of year, and the angle that sunlight hits the PV module surface. In fact, the solar resource would be perfectly predictable based on clear-sky models if not for clouds, which are not as predictable. So, we typically rely upon a site’s historic climate data rather than the purely theoretical clear-sky model when assessing the expected performance of a PV system. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 11  13/09/2024 Understanding Solar Photovoltaic Performance Age: PV module efficiency unavoidably degrades at about 0.5% per year. Failure rates are also higher in later years as the equipment ages. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa PV Performance Measure Performance ratio refers to the fraction of the expected power output when the plant is available. The performance ratio can be evaluated over any time period (instantaneously, monthly, annually). It is calculated as the ratio of actual production (measured by a production meter on the PV system) to model production, which is based on a computer model of the same measured solar resource and temperature data over the selected time period (taking into account age of the system). Performance ratio = actual production/model production (%) © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 12  13/09/2024 PV Performance Measure Availability refers to the percentage of time that the system is operational and capable of delivering power if the solar resource and the grid are both working. Availability is calculated from time-series data according to: Availability = (1-downtime)/total time (%) © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Energy Management of PV Modules Orientation and Tilt: Proper orientation towards the sun (south in the northern hemisphere, north in the southern hemisphere) for maximum sunlight exposure. Adjusting the tilt angle based on latitude to optimize energy capture throughout the year. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 13  13/09/2024 Energy Management of PV Modules Shading Management: Minimize shading from nearby objects like trees, buildings, or structures to ensure consistent sunlight exposure on panels. Trim vegetation and remove obstructions that cast shadows on the modules. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Energy Management of PV Modules Cleaning and Maintenance: Regular cleaning of panels to remove dirt, dust, and debris that can obstruct sunlight absorption. Inspection for damage or defects in panels, wiring, and mounting structures to ensure optimal performance. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 14  13/09/2024 Energy Management of PV Modules Inverter Efficiency: Selection of efficient inverters to convert DC electricity generated by the panels into AC electricity for use in homes or businesses. Monitoring inverter performance to identify any issues that may affect energy production. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Energy Management of PV Modules Battery Storage (if applicable): Installation of battery storage systems to store excess energy generated during peak sunlight hours for use during periods of low sunlight or high demand. Proper sizing and maintenance of batteries to maximize energy storage capacity and lifespan. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 15  13/09/2024 Energy Management of PV Modules Smart Grid Integration: Integration with smart grid technologies to enable bidirectional energy flow, allowing excess energy to be fed back into the grid or drawn from the grid as needed. Participation in demand response programs to balance energy supply and demand and optimize system efficiency.. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa Energy Management of PV Modules Energy Management Software: Utilization of energy management software to analyze data, forecast energy production, and optimize system operation for maximum efficiency. Implementation of predictive maintenance algorithms to identify potential issues before they impact performance and reliability. © Batangas State University Engr. Aryl I. Bejasa 16  27/09/2024 SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa COURSE OUTLINE Solar Power Solar Thermal for Economics of Solar Concentration Heating Power Systems Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 1  27/09/2024 Solar Power Concentration Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Solar Power Concentration Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) is a technology that uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a small area, typically onto a receiver where it is converted into heat or electricity. This concentrated sunlight can generate high temperatures, which are then utilized to produce steam to drive a turbine and generate electricity. In simpler terms, CSP harnesses the power of sunlight by focusing it to create heat, which is then converted into usable energy. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 2  27/09/2024 Solar Power Concentration Video Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rO5rUqeCFY 4 Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Solar Power Concentration Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power 1. Parabolic Trough Systems 1. Power Tower Systems 1. Dish Stirling Systems 1. Fresnel Reflectors Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 3  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power 1. Parabolic Trough Systems - Use curved, trough-shaped mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube running along the focal line of the trough. The concentrated sunlight heats a fluid within the receiver tube, which is then used to generate steam and produce electricity via a turbine. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power Video Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAJeDVLO1_w Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 4  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power CSP Type Advantages Disadvantages Mature technology with a long Limited efficiency in converting sunlight track record of successful to electricity. operation. Requires large land area due to the Parabolic Relatively low operating costs long rows of troughs. Trough compared to other CSP technologies. Maintenance can be challenging due to the moving parts and complex systems. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power 2. Power Tower Systems - Use an array of flat, movable mirrors called heliostats to reflect sunlight onto a central receiver tower. The concentrated sunlight heats a fluid or molten salt in the receiver at the top of the tower, which is then used to generate steam and produce electricity. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 5  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power Video Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wg7pv6ZBdeQ Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power CSP Type Advantages Disadvantages High efficiency in converting Complex system with high upfront sunlight to electricity. costs. Ability to incorporate thermal Requires large land area for the field of Power Tower storage for continuous power heliostats. generation. Potential for bird and insect collisions with heliostats. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 6  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power 3. Dish Stirling Systems - Consist of a large dish-shaped mirror (parabolic dish) that focuses sunlight onto a receiver at the dish's focal point. The receiver contains a Stirling engine, which converts the concentrated sunlight into mechanical energy and then into electricity. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power Video Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfMDiv6mV9s Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 7  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power CSP Type Advantages Disadvantages High efficiency and modularity, Higher upfront costs compared to other suitable for small-scale CSP technologies. installations. Relatively limited scalability for large- Dish Stirling Rapid response to changes in scale power generation. sunlight intensity. Maintenance can be challenging for the Stirling engine. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power 4. Fresnel Reflectors - Use flat mirrors arranged in a series of long, narrow strips to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube located at the focal line of the reflectors. The concentrated sunlight heats a fluid within the receiver tube, which is then used to generate steam and produce electricity. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 8  27/09/2024 Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power Video Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP48pAb8sec Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Four Main Types of Concentrating Solar Power CSP Type Advantages Disadvantages Lower upfront costs compared to Lower overall efficiency compared to other CSP technologies. other CSP technologies. Fresnel Flexible design, suitable for various Requires large land area for the Reflectors project sizes and locations. reflector field. Maintenance can be complex due to the large number of reflectors. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 9  27/09/2024 Solar Thermal for Heating Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Solar Thermal for Heating Solar thermal heating refers to the use of solar energy to heat water or air for residential, commercial, or industrial purposes. Unlike photovoltaic (PV) systems that directly convert sunlight into electricity, solar thermal systems capture sunlight to generate heat, which is then used for space heating, water heating, or even for industrial processes. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 10  27/09/2024 Components of Solar Thermal for Heating 1. Solar Collectors - Panels made of special materials that absorb sunlight and convert it into heat. 2. Heat Transfer Fluids: Liquids or gases that carry the heat from the solar collectors to where it's needed, like water or air. 3. Storage Tanks: Large containers that store the heated water or fluid until it's ready to be used. 4. Distribution Systems: Networks of pipes or ducts that transport the heated fluid or air throughout a building or system. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Types of Collector for Solar Thermal for Heating 1. Flat-Plate Collectors: Panels made of flat, heat-absorbing materials covered by a transparent cover to trap sunlight and convert it into heat. 2. Evacuated Tube Collectors: Tubes containing a heat-absorbing material surrounded by a vacuum, which helps to insulate and trap sunlight more efficiently. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 11  27/09/2024 Functionality of Solar Thermal for Heating 1. Sunlight absorbed by the solar collectors causes the heat- absorbing materials to get hot. 2. The heat is then transferred to the heat transfer fluid, which carries it away to be used for heating purposes. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Economics of Solar Power System Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 12  27/09/2024 Economics of Solar Power System Economics Definition Initial Cost Average upfront costs for installing a residential solar power system in the Philippines range from ₱100,000 to ₱500,000 depending on system size and quality of components. Incentives and Rebates The Philippines offers incentives such as the Net Metering Program, which allows solar system owners to earn credits for excess electricity sent to the grid, reducing electricity bills. The government provides tax exemptions on imported solar panels and equipment to encourage solar adoption. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Economics of Solar Power System Economics Definition Financing Options Solar loans from banks and financial institutions in the Philippines offer competitive interest rates and flexible repayment terms, making solar more accessible to homeowners and businesses. Solar leasing and power purchase agreements (PPAs) are also available, allowing customers to pay for solar energy on a per- kilowatt-hour basis without upfront costs. Return on Investment (ROI) The average ROI for residential solar power systems in the Philippines ranges from 5 to 7 years, depending on factors such as electricity rates, system size, and incentives received. With proper maintenance, solar panels can continue to generate savings and income for 25 years or more. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 13  27/09/2024 Economics of Solar Power System Economics Definition Energy Savings Solar power systems in the Philippines can offset up to 70% of electricity bills, resulting in substantial long-term savings for homeowners and businesses. The country's abundant sunlight ensures consistent energy generation throughout the year, maximizing savings potential. Net Metering Under the Net Metering Program, solar system owners in the Philippines can receive credits for excess electricity exported to the grid, which can be used to offset future electricity consumption. This helps homeowners and businesses further reduce electricity bills and increase overall savings. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa Economics of Solar Power System Economics Definition Maintenance Cost Annual maintenance costs for solar power systems in the Philippines typically range from ₱5,000 to ₱10,000, covering expenses such as cleaning, inspections, and minor repairs. Proper maintenance ensures optimal system performance and extends the lifespan of solar panels, maximizing energy savings over time. Resale Value Properties with solar power systems in the Philippines often command a premium of 3% to 5% compared to similar properties without solar. Solar installations enhance property value by offering long-term energy savings and environmental benefits, making them attractive to potential buyers. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 14  27/09/2024 Economics of Solar Power System Economics Definition Economic Viability Evaluating the economic viability of solar power systems in the Philippines involves analyzing factors such as solar irradiance, electricity rates, financing options, and available incentives. With favorable conditions and supportive policies, solar energy presents a compelling economic opportunity for homeowners, businesses, and the country as a whole. Batangas State University Engr. Aryl Bejasa 15 SAMPLE PROBLEMS Problem 1: Calculating the Power Output of a Solar Panel Question: A solar panel has a rated power of 300 watts under standard test conditions (STC), which are defined as an irradiance of 1000 W/m² and a temperature of 25°C. If the actual irradiance at a particular location is 800 W/m² and the panel's efficiency decreases by 0.5% for every degree Celsius above 25°C. Assuming the panel temperature is 35°C, calculate the actual power output of the solar panel under these conditions. Problem 2: Sizing a Photovoltaic System for a Household Question: A household consumes an average of 900 kWh of electricity per month. The location receives an average of 5 peak sun hours per day. You plan to install a PV system with panels that have an efficiency of 18% and each panel has a rating of 350 W. Assuming the system has no losses, calculate the number of solar panels required to meet the household's monthly energy consumption. Since you can't install a fraction of a panel, round up to the next whole number. Problem 3: Calculating the Efficiency of a Solar Panel Question: A solar panel has an area of 1.6 m² and generates 320 W of power under standard test conditions (1000 W/m² irradiance). Calculate the efficiency of the solar panel. Answer: The efficiency of the solar panel is 20%. Problem 4: Estimating Annual Energy Production Question: A 5 kW photovoltaic system is installed in a location that receives an average of 4.5 peak sun hours per day. Assuming the system operates at an average efficiency of 80% (to account for system losses), estimate the annual energy production of the system in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Answer: The estimated annual energy production of the system is 6,570 kWh. Problem 5: Cost-Benefit Analysis of a PV System Question: You are considering installing a 6 kW photovoltaic system that costs $18,000 before incentives. The federal government offers a 26% Investment Tax Credit (ITC), and your state offers an additional rebate of $1,500. The system is expected to generate 8,000 kWh per year. If your electricity rate is $0.12 per kWh, calculate: a) The net cost of the system after incentives. b) The payback period in years. The net cost of the system after incentives is $11,820. The payback period for the PV system is approximately 12.3 years. Problem 6: Impact of Shading on PV System Output Question: A 10 kW PV system consists of 20 panels, each rated at 500 W under standard conditions. On a particular day, a tree casts a shadow on 4 panels for 3 hours during peak sun. Assuming those 4 panels receive no sunlight during the shaded period, calculate the total energy loss for the day in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The total energy loss for the day due to shading is 6 kWh. Problem 7: Battery Sizing for a PV System Question: A PV system needs to provide backup power during cloudy days when the PV system produces only 50% of its rated capacity. The household requires a minimum of 5 kWh of energy per day during such days. If the battery bank should supply energy for 3 consecutive cloudy days without any PV generation, and the battery bank operates at 12V with a depth of discharge (DoD) of 50%, calculate the required battery capacity in ampere-hours (Ah). The required battery capacity is 2,500 ampere-hours (Ah). Problem 8: Determining the Optimal Tilt Angle for a PV Panel Question: A PV installer wants to determine the optimal tilt angle for solar panels in Denver, Colorado (latitude approximately 39.74° N). A common rule of thumb is to set the tilt angle equal to the local latitude for maximum annual energy production. Calculate the optimal tilt angle. Additionally, if the installer wants to maximize winter energy production, adjust the tilt angle by adding 15° to the latitude angle. What would be the new tilt angle for winter optimization? The optimal tilt angle for maximum annual energy production is 40°. For winter optimization, the tilt angle should be adjusted to 55°. Problem 9: Evaluating the Impact of Panel Efficiency on System Size Question: Two different solar panels are available for a project. Panel A has an efficiency of 16% and Panel B has an efficiency of 20%. Both panels have an area of 1.7 m². If the goal is to generate 4,000 kWh annually, determine the difference in the number of panels required between Panel A and Panel B. Assume an average of 5 peak sun hours per day and no system losses. Panel A requires 9 panels, while Panel B requires 7 panels. Difference: Panel A requires 2 more panels than Panel B to generate 4,000 kWh annually. Problem 10: Determining System Losses Question: A PV system has a rated capacity of 10 kW and is expected to generate 14,000 kWh annually. However, the actual energy production is measured to be 12,600 kWh. Calculate the system’s performance ratio, which accounts for losses such as shading, inverter inefficiency, and temperature effects. The performance ratio is given by: Assume the theoretical energy output is calculated as: Given that the peak sun hours per day are 4 hours and the panel efficiency is 18%, compute the theoretical energy output and then the performanc e ratio. The system’s theoretical energy output is 14,600 kWh/year, and the performance ratio is approximately 86.3%.