ZOO_402_course_mat[1].docx

**Course code: ZOO 402 PRINCIPLES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMEN** **Course outlines** - **Fishing gears** - **Types of fishing gears** - **Efficiency of fishing gears** - **Fisheries policies and laws in Nigeria** - **International Law of the Sea** **OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, yo...

**Course code: ZOO 402 PRINCIPLES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMEN** **Course outlines** - **Fishing gears** - **Types of fishing gears** - **Efficiency of fishing gears** - **Fisheries policies and laws in Nigeria** - **International Law of the Sea** **OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, you should able to;** **1. Discuss Active and Passive fishing gears** **2. Differentiate between passive and active fishing gears** **3. State the efficiency of fishing gears.** **4. State the fisheries policies and laws in Nigeria.** **5. Discuss international laws of the sea.** **Introduction** Fishing gears are essential tools that have evolved over centuries to meet the demands of various fishing methods. There are different systems of fish harvesting used in the world which is ranging from primitive to highly sophisticated systems. Fishing gear vary with structure, materials used, principle of capture process and method of operation. The selection of fishing gears mostly dependent on fish species, environmental factors and fishing ground condition. These gears are integral to the fishing industry, impacting the sustainability of fish populations and the health of aquatic ecosystems. Important factors which influence the design of fishing gears are (i) biology, behaviour and distribution of target species; (ii) fishing depth, current and visibility; (iii) sea bottom conditions; and (iv)other factors such as the scale of operations, size and engine power of fishing vessel, energy conservation objectives, selectivity and resource conservation objectives. **Types of fishing gears** Fishing gears can be broadly categorized into two main types. This classification is based on the relative behavior of the target species and the fishing gear. 1\. Passive fishing gears and 2\. Active fishing gears. **1. Passive Fishing Gears** - Passive fishing gears are devices that do not require continuous handling or active involvement of the fisherman once they are set. - Passive gears are in general the most ancient type of fishing gears. - Passive gears are those which are left in place for a period before retrieval. They may either attract fish using bait, or may passively wait for a fish to swim into a net or trap. - Passive fishing gear do not move in water for harvesting of fish. Fish comes in the way of net and they are harvested. - They rely on the natural behavior of fish to become entangled or trapped. - With passive gears, the capture of fish is generally based on movement of the target species towards the gear (e.g. traps). - These gears are most suitable for small scale-fishing and are, therefore, often the gear types used in artisanal fisheries. - Some passive fishing gears are often referred to as \"stationary\" fishing gears. Stationary gears are those anchored to the seabed and they constitute a large group of the passive gears. However, some moving gears such as drift nets may also be classified as passive gears, as fish capture by these gears also depend on movement of the target species towards the gear. **Types of Passive Fishing Gears** Passive fishing gears is broadly divided into three main categories. 1\. Nets 2\. Pots and traps 3\. Hook and line fishing 1\. **Nets** a\. Gill Nets: Vertical panels of netting that entangle fish by their gills as they attempt to swim through. They are commonly used in both freshwater and saltwater; effective for various species. It can be set stationary or drift with the current. b\. Cast Nets: these are circular nets thrown by hand, which sink and trap fish when pulled back. It is primarily for catching baitfish or small species. It requires skill to throw effectively. c\. Trammel Nets: This is a three-layered nets designed to entrap fish between the inner and outer layers. It is effective for capturing various fish sizes. d\. Seine Nets: these are large nets that encircle fish and are often deployed from boats or the shore. It is commonly used for schooling fish. 2\. **Traps and Pots** a\. Fish Traps: this is an enclosed structures that allow fish to enter but prevent its escape. It is of two types box traps and funnel traps. It is used to capture species like catfish and crustaceans. b\. Crab and Lobster Pots: these are specially designed traps for capturing crabs and lobsters using bait to attract them inside. It is usually made of wire mesh or plastic. 3\. **Lines and Hooks** a\. Long lines: it is usually long, heavy fishing lines with numerous baited hooks attached at intervals. It is common used for commercial fishing for targeting various species. It is set and left to catch the fish passively. b\. Hand lines: it is a simple fishing lines with a hook, operated by hand. It is often used by artisanal fishers. **Advantages of Passive Fishing Gears** 1\. Requires minimal ongoing effort after setup i.e. Less Labor-Intensive. 2\. Suitable for various fishing environments and species thus widely applicable. 3\. Often does not require motorized equipment. **Disadvantages of Passive Fishing Gears** 1\. May unintentionally capture non-target species. 2\. Can affect local ecosystems and habitats if not managed properly. 3\. The effectiveness can vary based on fish movement and behavior. 2\. **Active Fishing Gears** - Active fishing gears involve continuous or periodic effort by the fisherman to catch fish. - The term "active" means that the fishing gear is dragged through the water by human, animal or engine power. - These methods often require movement and manipulation of the gear to attract or catch fish. - Active or mobile gears are moved in order to catch fish by trapping or encirclement. - Fish capture by active gears is based on the aimed chase of the target species and combined with different ways of catching it. - Active gear moves in the way of fish to capture it. - Active fishing gears consume more energy during fishing more productive than passive type of gears. - Active fishing methods are especially suitable for sampling large proportions of the whole fish stock or large numbers of fish. **Types of Active Fishing Gears** 1\. Fishing Rods and Reels 2\. Trawls 3\. Drifting Gear 4\. Purse Seines 5\. Spears and Harpoons 1\. **Fishing Rods and Reels** a\. Spinning Rods: these are versatile rods used with spinning reels to cast lures or bait. It is Ideal for both freshwater and saltwater fishing. b\. Baitcasting Rods: it is designed for accuracy in casting heavier lures. It is popularly used for targeting larger species. c\. Fly Rods these are specialized rods designed for fly fishing, using artificial flies as lures. They are commonly used in freshwater streams and rivers. **2. Trawls** a\. Bottom Trawls: bottom trawl is a large, usually cone-shaped net, which is towed across the seabed. The nets are dragged along the sea floor to capture bottom-dwelling species. It is used to capture for various fish and crustaceans. b\. Pelagic Trawls: Nets fished in the water column to target open-water species. Their effectiveness relies on traversing a considerable volume of water, and consequently nets are larger than bottom trawls and require a large vertical and horizontal mouth opening to provide net stability and capture large fish. It is commonly used in deep-sea. **3. Drifting Gear** Drift Nets: the large nets are allowed to drift with ocean currents to capture fish. This can be used to cover vast areas, targeting migratory species. 4\. **Purse Seines:** these are large nets encircled around a school of fish, with a purse line to close the bottom.The purse seine is used to encircle fish schools in mid-water, close to the surface, by a netting wall with small meshes. The lower part of the net is then closed to prevent the fish from escaping by diving. It is often used for capturing schools of fish such as sardines and mackerel. 5\. **Spears and Harpoons:** This is one of the most ancient ways of active fish capture. This method is used for fish having high individual value such as swordfish and bluefin tuna. In this type active fishing, the target must be seen before striking, so the size and hence age can be determined and only mature fish taken. **Advantages of Active Fishing Gears** 1\. Often leads to immediate and larger quantities of fish caught. 2\. Can be designed to focus on specific species or sizes. 3\. Adaptable to various fishing environments and techniques. **Disadvantages of Active Fishing Gears** **1.** Requires more effort, skill, and time to operate effectively. 2\. Often involves fuel costs for boats and equipment maintenance. 3\. Can lead to depletion of fish stocks if not managed sustainably. **Comparison of Passive and Active Fishing Gears** S/N **Passive Fishing Gears** **Active Fishing Gears** ----- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Gears that capture fish without active pursuit Gears that involve actively chasing or pursuing fish 2 Set and left in place for fish to enter Actively fished, often requiring movement 3 Generally requires less manpower Higher labor intensity, requires more effort 4 Often lower bycatch species specific Typically higher bycatch due to broad capture 5 Usually lower costs over time Can involve higher operational costs due to gear maintenance 6 Generally less impact on habitats Can cause more habitat disruption and bycatch 7 Fish enter traps or nets passively Fish are chased or disturbed to be caught 8 Often reliant on fish movement patterns Can be more efficient for schooling fish 9 Simpler regulations and management Often more complex due to potential impacts on fish stocks 10 Requires knowledge of fish behavior and habitats Requires skills in navigation and gear handling **Efficiency of Fishing Gears** Fishing gear is an essential component of fishing. It is designed to attract, capture, and retain fish; therefore, efficient fishing gear is necessary to optimize catches while reducing unintended impacts on marine ecosystems. Efficiency refers to the ability of fishing gear to accomplish its objectives and the degree to which it meets the goals of the fisherman and the fishery. Efficient fishing gear is designed to accomplish the highest catch per unit effort, which is the amount of fish caught per unit of gear used. It is also designed to reduce bycatch, which is the capture of non-target species, and minimize damage to the marine environment. In general, efficient fishing gear should be safe for the fisherman, have low operational costs, and be environmentally friendly, sustainable and selective. The following are some of the most efficient fishing gears and the reasons why they are considered so: 1\. **Trawls**: Trawls are large nets that are dragged along the sea floor or through the water to catch fish. They are highly efficient at capturing large numbers of fish in a short period of time, but they can also have a negative impact on the environment by causing damage to sensitive aquatic habitats. 2\. **Longlines**: Longlines consist of a main line with baited hooks attached at regular intervals. They are typically used to catch larger fish species such as tuna and swordfish. Longlines are less efficient than trawls in terms of catching large quantities of fish, but they are more selective and less damaging to the marine environment. 3\. **Gillnets**: Gillnets are vertical walls of netting that are placed in the water to entangle fish by their gills. They are a highly efficient fishing gear for catching specific target species, but they can also inadvertently capture non-target species, known as bycatch, leading to waste and harm to marine wildlife. 4\. **Traps and pots:** Traps and pots are stationary fishing gears that are designed to catch fish by luring them inside a baited enclosure. They are relatively efficient at targeting specific species and reducing bycatch, but they can be labor-intensive and require frequent maintenance. 5\. **Handline fishing gear:** This fishing gear is operated by hand, and it consists of a single line with a baited hook. It is easy to use, inexpensive, and environmentally friendly. Handline fishing is also very selective as the fisherman has control over the type of fish they catch. **Impact on Sustainability** The efficiency of fishing gears has a direct impact on the sustainability of fisheries management. Overly efficient fishing gears can lead to the overexploitation of fish stocks, causing declines in population numbers and disrupting aquatic food chains. This can have serious consequences for the health of aquatic ecosystems and the livelihoods of fishermen who depend on sustainable fisheries. In contrast, more selective and less efficient fishing gears can help to maintain healthy fish populations and reduce the impact on non-target species and habita**ts.** **Factors Influencing Fishing Gear Efficiency** Several factors determine the selection of a fishing gear for a particular species of fish in a particular area.1. **Biological factors**: Choice & design of fishing gear greatly influenced fishing gears efficiency. A. Size and shape of fish body: - Determine the mesh size required to enmesh and hold in fish in gill net. - Mesh size to retain fish without gill in trawls, seines and traps. - Body size related to tensile strength required for netting in gill net and hook size and line in hook and line. - Their sense of sight and hearing are often used to attract the fish to the gear by exhibiting light and lure. B. Behavior of Fish: - Swimming depth, schooling behavior, feeding and breeding habit etc. have impact on gear selection. - Size, type of gear and depth at which it is operated depend on swimming depth of fish. - Behavioral and size difference between fish and crustacean could be used to design selective trawl. - Tendency of some fishes to aggregate towards light is used in squid jigging, light assisted purse seining and dip net operation. - Fishes having migratory habit, spawning habit and season are important in selecting geara. 2\. **Fishing Areas:** - Distance of fishing ground, depth of operation, bottom topography directly/indirectly influence efficiency of fishing gear. - Gill net visibility of netting panel adversely affects fishing efficiency. - Bulk catching method and more productive gears feasible for far off fishing ground. - Buoyancy elements used in deep sea fishing gears such as deep sea trawl, gill net and bottom. - Visibility is also important in effective herding during capture of fish by trawls, large pound nets and trapping enclosures. 3\. **Sea bottom condition:** - **Na**ture of bottom also play a significance role in fishing gears efficiency. - Rough sea bottom --limits operation of most fishing gears. 4\. **Environmental Conditions:** - Environmental conditions such as water temperature, salinity, and substrate type can affect the effectiveness of different fishing methods. Line requires clear transparent water, whereas gill net and purse seine need more turbid water. - Other factors include, scale of operation, size and engine power of fishing vessel, energy conservation, selectivity and resource conservation, catch volume, operational and handling requirement of gear, prevailing weather condition, Skill required for fabrication, maintenance and operation, material availability etc influence the efficiency of fishing gear **5. Economic consideration:** - For successful commercial fishing, gear should give reasonable profit besides operational and capital costs. **6. Social condition:** - Before introducing a particular gear in an area it has to be ensured that the gear is socially acceptable. - Sometimes, new and sophisticated method of fishing are not accepted easily by fishermen due to their traditional attitude and social customs. - **Other factors include:** 7\. Specific gears are designed to capture a particular fish species based on size, behavior, and habitat. 8\. The skill and experience of the fisher can significantly influence gear performance. 9\. The level of fishing effort in a given area can impact gear efficiency due to competition and reduced fish populations. **Fisheries Policy and Law in Nigeria** Fisheries management is an essential aspect of the Nigerian economy, given that the country is blessed with abundant aquatic resources. The fisheries sector makes an immense contribution to food security, export earnings, GDP, and employment. Due to its significance, Nigeria has put in place policies and laws aimed at enhancing sustainable fisheries management. **Fisheries Policies in Nigeria** Nigeria has developed several fisheries policies to guide the operations in the fisheries sector. Notably, these policies include: 1\. The National Fisheries Policy of 1986 2\. The National Fish Production Policy of 2000 3\. The National Aquaculture Policy of 2004. The government formulated these policies to foster sustainable fisheries management, conservation of aquatic resources, and to boost the socio-economic well-being of Nigerians who depend on the fisheries industry. The policies seek to improve aquaculture production, promote adequate fishing practices, and minimize the impact of human activity on fisheries ecosystems. However, the implementation of these policies has been largely unsuccessful due to various factors, including poor enforcement, inadequate funding, and limited stakeholder participation. **Fisheries Laws in Nigeria** The Nigerian government has also enacted several laws and regulations to govern fisheries management in the country. Some of the essential laws include: 1\. The Nigerian Fisheries Act of 1992 2\. The Exclusive Economic Zone Act of 1978 3\. The Coastal and Inland Shipping (Cabotage) Act of 2003. These laws aim to regulate fishing and other related activities in Nigerian waters, prevent illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, and promote environmentally sustainable practices. The laws also provide for penalties for violations and empower relevant authorities to enforce regulations. However, the effectiveness of these laws is limited by challenges such as inadequate enforcement, corruption, and limited resources. The key aspects of fisheries policy and legislation in Nigeria are outlined below; **National Fisheries Decrees and Regulations** Several decrees and laws (national and international) have been enacted in response to the need to properly manage fisheries in Nigeria. These include: 1. **Exclusive Economic Zone Decree No. 28 of 1978** - The registration and licensing of fishing trawlers operating in the coastal waters of Nigeria. - The 1971 decree prohibited the use of explosives and poisons in catching fish. i. Provision for licensing and identification of fishing craft. ii. Restriction on the use of certain fishing gear. iii. Prohibition of obnoxious fishing methods. **Effectiveness of Fisheries Policies and Laws in Nigeria** The effectiveness of fisheries policies and laws in Nigeria in fostering sustainable fisheries management is limited by various factors. For instance, the implementation of these policies has been hindered by inadequate funding and personnel. Additionally, the lack of stakeholder participation has limited the execution of the policies on the ground. On the other hand, inadequate enforcement, limited resources, and corruption have undermined the effectiveness of fisheries laws. Illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing activities are widespread in Nigerian waters, despite being prohibited by law. This has led to overfishing and threatened the sustainability of fish stocks. The fisheries sector in Nigeria faces several challenges that impede sustainable fisheries management. These challenges include overfishing, pollution, habitat degradation, and climate change. Moreover, corruption, inadequate funding, and poor enforcement remain fundamental issues. To address these challenges, the government should increase funding for the fisheries sector, ensure stakeholder participation, improve enforcement, and combat corruption. The government should also encourage the adoption of sustainable fishing technologies, promote fish farming and fish processing, and promote education and awareness on sustainable fisheries practices. These actions can improve the effectiveness of fisheries policies and laws in Nigeria, foster sustainable fisheries management, and enhance the socio-economic well-being of Nigerians. **International Law of the Sea** The international laws of the seas are a set of norms, regulations, and agreements that establish a legal framework for the use and management of the world\'s oceans and seas. These laws are created and enforced by the United Nations (UN) through its specialized agency, the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The international laws of the seas, also known as the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea, is a set of international laws created to provide a framework for managing, utilizing, and protecting the world's oceans and seas. Enacted in 1982, the laws cover a wide range of issues, including marine environment protection, shipping rights, and the distribution of maritime resources. the international laws of the seas are a critical aspect of international governance that ensures the orderly and sustainable use of the world\'s oceans and seas. The UNCLOS and other agreements and regulations provide a framework for managing maritime boundaries, environmental protection, and other issues that affect the ocean and its resources. The effective implementation of these laws requires the cooperation and commitment of the international community, including governments, civil society, and the private sector. **Origins and Development:** The international laws of the seas were developed over the course of several centuries as nations began to explore and exploit the world's oceans. It was not until the 20th century that an attempt was made to create a comprehensive legal framework to govern maritime issues. The first major international agreement on the laws of the seas was the 1958 United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea, which focused mainly on territorial waters and fishing rights. However, this agreement was never ratified by most of the major maritime powers, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and Japan. The 1982 United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea was a significant step forward and remains the most important international agreement on maritime law to date. The Convention was developed over a period of nine years and was eventually signed by 119 nations, including all of the major maritime powers. In the years since its enactment, the Convention has been one of the most successful examples of international cooperation, and it continues to influence the way nations interact in maritime affairs. **Fundamental Principles:** The international laws of the seas are based on several fundamental principles, including the idea that the oceans and seas are common heritage of mankind, that coastal states have certain rights over their adjacent waters, and that navigation and other uses of the seas should be free for all nations. One of the key principles of the international laws of the seas is the idea that all nations share common ownership of the world's oceans and seas. This means that no single nation has the right to claim exclusive ownership or control over any part of the oceans. Instead, the maritime resources of the world are treated as a global commons, which should be managed and utilized in a way that benefits all nations. Another important principle is the concept of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), which were first defined in the 1982 Convention. An EEZ is an area extending 200 nautical miles from a nation's coastline, within which the nation has exclusive rights to exploit the natural resources of the sea, such as fish stocks and oil and gas reserves. **The following are some of the key aspects of the international laws of the seas:** 1\. The Law of the Sea Convention: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the primary document that governs the use and management of the world\'s oceans and seas. The UNCLOS was adopted in 1982 and has been signed by over 160 countries. It establishes rules for maritime boundaries, navigation, conservation, fishing, and other activities in the oceans. 2\. Territorial Waters and Exclusive Economic Zones: The UNCLOS establishes a country\'s territorial waters, which extend up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 kilometers) from its coast. A country also has an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) that extends up to 200 nautical miles (370.4 kilometers) from its coast. Within this zone, the country has special rights to explore, exploit, and manage the natural resources of the sea. 3\. Freedom of Navigation: The international laws of the seas guarantee the freedom of navigation in the oceans. This means that ships of any nationality have the right to travel through international waters without interference from other countries. However, countries have the right to establish navigational rules and safety zones in their territorial waters and EEZs. 4\. Marine Environmental Protection: The international laws of the seas also include regulations for the conservation and protection of marine environments. The UNCLOS requires countries to take measures to prevent pollution and protect marine habitats and species. The IMO has also established guidelines and regulations for the prevention of ship pollution and other environmental hazards. 5\. Maritime Disputes: Maritime disputes can arise regarding boundary delimitation, fishing rights, and other issues. The UNCLOS provides a framework for resolving such disputes through negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) can also serve as a forum for resolving disputes related to the interpretation and application of the UNCLOS. In conclusion, the international laws of the seas are a vital component of global governance, providing a framework for managing, utilizing and protecting the world's oceans and seas. The Convention is based on fundamental principles, including the common heritage of mankind, navigation freedom, and various sovereign rights granted to coastal states. Despite some ongoing disputes and challenges in its application, the international laws of the seas have played a critical role in promoting peaceful and sustainable use of the world's oceans. As the world confronts growing threats to oceans, such as climate change and overfishing, international cooperation on maritime law and governance will only become more essential.