The Coming of Independence PDF

# The Coming of Independence ## The Next Crisis The East India Company, a trading monopoly, controlled recently acquired British possessions in India. Many British merchants, bankers, and individuals invested heavily in its stock, creating a speculative bubble. When the stock price collapsed, the...

# The Coming of Independence ## The Next Crisis The East India Company, a trading monopoly, controlled recently acquired British possessions in India. Many British merchants, bankers, and individuals invested heavily in its stock, creating a speculative bubble. When the stock price collapsed, the British government helped market the company’s enormous holdings of Chinese tea in North America. Tea was now a popular drink among all social classes in England and the colonies. To offset the East India Company's losses and boost tea sales, the British government (headed by Frederick Lord North) offered the company rebates and tax exemptions. This allowed the company to undercut both established merchants and smugglers, underselling tea in the American market. The tax revenue from imported tea would be used to help pay for colonial government, thus threatening, once again, the assemblies’ control over finance. ## The Boston Tea Party Many colonists protested the tax on tea believing it would acknowledge Britain’s right to tax the colonies. On December 16, 1773, colonists disguised as Indians boarded three ships at anchor in Boston Harbor and dumped more than 300 chests of tea into the water. This event became known as the Boston Tea Party. The East India Company lost approximately £10,000, which is equivalent to more than $4 million today. ## The Intolerable Acts In response to the Boston Tea Party, Lord North declared, “whether we have, or have not, any authority in that country”. The British government swiftly enacted a series of repressive laws: - Parliament closed the port of Boston to all trade until the tea was paid for. - The Massachusetts Charter of 1691 was altered allowing the governor to appoint members to the council, positions previously elected by the people. - Parliament authorized military commanders to quarter soldiers in private homes. Americans called these acts the Coercive or Intolerable Acts. They unified the colonies in opposition to what was widely seen as a direct threat to their political freedom. ## Quebec Act At almost the same time, Parliament passed the Quebec Act. It extended the southern boundary of the Canadian province to the Ohio River. The act granted legal toleration to the Roman Catholic Church in Canada. With an eye to the growing tensions in the colonies to the south, the act aimed to secure the allegiance of Quebec's Catholics by offering rights denied to their coreligionists in Britain, including practicing their faith freely and holding positions in the civil service. But the act was seen as a challenge to land claims in the Ohio country and many colonists viewed it as evidence that the government in London was trying to strengthen Catholicism in its American empire. The threat of religious and political tyranny spread throughout the colonies, especially in New England. ## The Continental Congress In September 1774, in Worcester, Massachusetts, 4,600 militiamen from thirty-seven towns (half the adult male population of the county) lined both sides of Main Street as the British-appointed officials walked between them. That month, a convention of delegates from Massachusetts towns approved a series of resolutions (called the Suffolk Resolves for the county in which Boston is located) that urged the Americans to refuse obedience to the new laws, withhold taxes, and prepare for war. In response to the Intolerable Acts, the Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. Delegates from twelve mainland colonies (Georgia and East and West Florida did not send representatives) came together to coordinate resistance. - From Massachusetts came John and Samuel Adams. - From Virginia came George Washington, Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. In March 1775, Henry concluded a speech urging a Virginia convention to begin military preparations with his famous words: “Give me liberty, or give me death!” ## The Continental Association Before adjourning in October 1774, the Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves and adopted the Continental Association, which called for an almost complete halt to trade with Great Britain and the West Indies. To implement the association’s mandates, Congress authorized local Committees of Safety to take action against "enemies of American liberty." ## The Committees of Safety The Committees of Safety began the process of transferring effective political power from established governments whose authority derived from Great Britain to extralegal grassroots bodies representing the will of the people. By early 1775, some 7,000 men were serving on local committees throughout the colonies. The committees became training grounds where small farmers, city artisans, propertyless laborers, and other men who had little role in government discussed political issues and exercised political power. ## The Sweets of Liberty By 1775, talk of liberty dominated the colonies. Pamphlets with titles like *A Chariot of Liberty* and *Oration on the Beauties of Liberty* appeared throughout the colonies. Sober men spoke longingly of the "sweets of liberty.” The term was synonymous with the cause of God and resisting oppressive authority. Americans were now invoking this concept against Britain, a powerful symbol of the imperial struggles of the eighteenth century. The first mass meeting in the history of Northampton County, Pennsylvania (whose population was overwhelmingly of German ancestry) gathered in 1774. The following year, the majority of the county's adult population had joined militia associations. German settlers, who had viewed "the famous English liberty" with suspicion, now claimed all the “rights and privileges of natural-born subjects of his majesty.” <start_of_image>是 As the crisis deepened, Americans increasingly based their claims not simply on the historical rights of Englishmen but on the more abstract language of natural rights and universal freedom. The First Continental Congress defended its actions by appealing to the "principles of the English constitution," the "liberties of free and natural-born subjects within the realm of England," and the "immutable law of nature.” John Locke's theory of natural rights offered a powerful justification for colonial resistance. In his pamphlet, *A Summary View of the Rights of British America*, Thomas Jefferson wrote: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” These are fundamental rights that no government can take away.. Jefferson argued that government derives its powers from "the consent of the governed.” In cases when governments threaten natural rights, people have the authority "to alter or abolish it”. This was the core of the Declaration of Independence: the right to revolution. ## The Outbreak of War By the time the Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, war had broken out between British soldiers and armed citizens of Massachusetts. On April 19, a force of British soldiers left Boston to seize arms being stockpiled in Concord. Riders, including Paul Revere, warned local leaders of the troop’s approach. Militiamen took up arms and tried to resist the British advance. The Battles of Lexington and Concord commenced, with both American and British soldiers losing lives. ## The Shot Heard “Round the World” The philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson later called these events “the shot heard ‘round the world’”. The war of Independence had begun. ## The Continental Army Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress authorized the raising of a Continental army, printed money to pay for it, and appointed George Washington as its commander. During the Seven Years’ War, Washington had gained considerable military experience, and as the colonies’ most celebrated military officer, his appointment reinforced colonial unity. Britain declared the colonies in a state of rebellion, dispatched thousands of troops, and ordered the closing of colonial ports. ## Independence? By the end of 1775, many colonists were calling for independence, yet many also shied away from the idea. Pride in membership in the British empire was strong. Many leaders, especially in colonies experiencing internal turmoil, feared that a complete break with the mother country might unleash further conflict, triggering chaos and anarchy. The elites in Massachusetts and Virginia, confident of their ability to retain authority at home, tended to support a break with Britain. Massachusetts had been harshly treated by the Intolerable Acts. Southern leaders protected their political liberty and were outraged by a proclamation issued in November 1775 by the earl of Dunmore, the British governor and military commander in Virginia. Dunmore’s proclamation offered freedom to any slave who escaped to British lines and bore arms for the king. In New York and Pennsylvania, the diversity of the population made it difficult to create consensus. However, despite the desire for a greater political voice, many established leaders drew back from further resistance. Joseph Galloway, a Pennsylvania leader and delegate to the Second Continental Congress, warned that independence would be accompanied by constant disputes within America. He even predicted a war between the northern and southern colonies. Galloway believed that Americans could only enjoy true liberty by remaining within the empire. ## Common Sense In January 1776, the pamphlet *Common Sense* emerged, authored anonymously as an “Englishman” by Thomas Paine. It did not focus on colonial grievances but instead criticized the “so much boasted Constitution of England” and its system of hereditary rule and monarchical government. Paine believed that the English monarchy was headed by "the royal brute of England" and the English constitution was composed of “the base remains of two ancient tyrannies—monarchical tyranny in the person of the king and aristocratical tyranny in the persons of the peers.” Paine concluded: “Of more worth is one honest man to society, and in the sight of God, than all the crowned ruffians that ever lived." Paine argued that democracy is far preferable to monarchy and advocated for a democratic system with written constitution and frequent elections. He believed that America’s prospects were limited within the British Empire, stating that America could trade freely with the rest of the world and insulate itself from involvement in imperial wars only by declaring independence. Paine asserted that the cause of America was the cause of all mankind, and that the new nation would become the home of freedom. ## Voices of Freedom An Anglican minister and graduate of Yale College, Samuel Seabury published several pamphlets in 1774 and 1775 opposing the revolutionary movement. He became the first Episcopal bishop of the United States after the War of Independence. Seabury wrote that the colonies were on a dangerous path. He believed that the actions of the Continental Congress and local committees undermined American liberties. He was particularly concerned about the influence of *foreign power* on American affairs. He saw the “foreign power” as the colonists and their leaders who supported independence. Seabury criticized the colonies’ actions as “unnatural” and “unfortunate.” He argued that most of the colonies' actions had been illegal, tyrannical, and “branded with ignominy”. He believed that the new government did not represent the “good people” of the colonies. His sentiments reflect the fear that the colonies were falling under the control of a tyrannical power. ## The Declaration of Independence On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress declared the United States an independent nation. Two days later, it approved the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson and revised by Congress. The Declaration included a list of grievances directed against King George III, ranging from quartering troops in colonial homes to imposing taxes without colonists’ consent. It declared that the British aim was to establish absolute tyranny over the colonies. The Declaration’s enduring impact came not from the complaints against George III but from Jefferson’s preamble. He asserts: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” Jefferson argued that these rights are so fundamental, so rooted in human nature that no government can take them away. He believed that government derives its powers from “the consent of the governed". When the government threatens natural rights, the people have the authority "to alter or to abolish it.” The Declaration of Independence is, therefore, a statement of the right of revolution. ## Securing Independence: The Balance of Power The newly formed American army was confronted by the world's strongest military force. Britain was determined to crush the rebellion. The British had a well-trained army, a powerful navy, and experienced military commanders. The Americans relied on poorly equipped local militias and a Continental army. Washington believed that militiamen were too "accustomed to unbounded freedom" to accept the discipline required of professional soldiers. Although many American soldiers had fought in the Seven Years' War or received intensive militia training, the war proved costly. The patriots suffered dearly. Approximately one in twenty free white men in colonies between the ages of sixteen to forty-five died in the War of Independence. Despite the power of the British army and the expense of war, the British public did not favor a lengthy conflict. They resisted the additional taxes needed to fund the war. A series of British mistakes also hampered their efforts. The British misjudged the capacity of American citizen-soldiers and the degree of support for independence among the population. British General Thomas Gage admitted that American soldiers “show a spirit and conduct against us that they never showed against the French”, and that their behavior had led to “great mistakes”. European rivals, particularly France and Spain, welcomed the prospect of a British defeat, believing that an American alliance would equalize the balance of forces. ## Blacks in the Revolution At the war’s outset, George Washington refused to accept Black recruits until Lord Dunmore issued his 1775 proclamation. It offered freedom to slaves who joined the British cause. Around 5,000 Black men enlisted in state militias and the Continental army and navy. Some gained freedom by agreeing to serve instead of their owners. In 1778, Rhode Island (with a higher proportion of slaves than any other New England state) formed a Black regiment, promising freedom to slaves who enlisted. Black soldiers fought in racially integrated companies, although their officers were white. They were the last Black American soldiers to participate in an integrated army until the Korean War. Many slaves sought refuge in British lines. Harry Washington was one of tens of thousands of slaves who sought freedom. He joined Lord Dunmore’s Ethiopian Regiment. The British offered other opportunities. Some Black soldiers served as spies, guides, cooks, laundresses, and construction workers. ## The First Years of The War The British commander, Sir William Howe, had an opportunity to crush the rebellion at the outset. But, while Washington suffered numerous defeats in the first years of the war, he avoided direct confrontations with the British. He was able to keep his army intact. Washington’s army abandoned Boston and moved from Massachusetts to Brooklyn. Howe attacked New York City in 1776. He pushed American forces back, nearly cutting off Washington’s retreat across the East River. Washington escaped to Manhattan, then North to Peekskill where he crossed the Hudson River to New Jersey. However, Howe captured the 3,000 American soldiers stationed at Fort Washington on Manhattan Island. Despite these setbacks, Howe could not land a decisive blow. His army’s morale was low and American soldiers were returning home. To save his army and restore morale, Washington launched surprise attacks on Hessian soldiers at Trenton, New Jersey on December 26, 1776, and a British force at Princeton on January 3, 1777. ## The Battle of Saratoga: A Global War In the summer of 1777, General John Burgoyne led a second British army from Canada. His objective was to link up with Howe and isolate New England. Instead, Howe moved his army to attack Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne to face increasingly fierce opposition from American forces. After Howe failed to coordinate with Burgoyne, American forces surrounded his British army. The British surrender at Saratoga on October 17, 1777, dramatically boosted American morale. Saratoga played a critical role in turning the tide of the war. It convinced France to officially join the war against Britain in 1778. American diplomats led by Benjamin Franklin negotiated a Treaty of Amity and Commerce in which France recognized the United States and agreed to supply military assistance. Spain and the Netherlands also joined the war against Britain. Spain hoped to regain lost influence and territory in the Western Hemisphere. While European nations sought to achieve their war objectives, they worked together to defeat Britain. It was a global conflict. Spanish forces seized the British colony of West Florida (including Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola) as well as the Bahamas. The British were put on the defensive, with European forces challenging them from Gibraltar to the West Indies to England itself. ## Native America and the Revolution The revolution also represented an American Indian struggle for independence. Despite the Proclamation of 1763, colonists continued to move westward. Lord Dunmore noted that “the Americans do not conceive that government has any right to forbid their taking possession of a vast tract of country." He believed that this presented a problem, as it contradicted established treaties with Native peoples. Many American leaders, including George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Thomas Jefferson, were deeply involved in western land speculation. However, Native peoples put their independence and safety first. They saw British colonial expansion as their greatest threat. When British officials urged them to fight in the war, they resisted. Often choosing to focus on defending their own territory instead of aligning with either side. British officials realized that Native forces were the key to defeating American forces. Their attempts at control met stiff resistance. As the British forces pushed deeper into Native lands, Native nations, especially in the South, fought back. The Cherokee, Shawnee, Delaware, and Mohawk nations all fiercely defended their territory against the British and colonists. British troops destroyed Native towns. In 1779, Washington dispatched an expedition, led by General John Sullivan, against most of the Haudenosaunee. Sullivan's official goal was to “destroy and devastate” their settlements. He burned forty towns and captured thousands of prisoners. Although the Revolution led to American independence, Native nations suffered grave consequences. Their lands were further diminished, and their cultures were disrupted. ## The War in the South In 1778, the focus of the war shifted to the South. The British sought to exploit the social tensions between backcountry farmers and wealthy planters. They hoped to enlist the support of loyal colonists and disrupt the economy by encouraging slaves to escape. They occupied Savannah, Georgia in December 1778 and captured Charleston, South Carolina, along with 5,000 American soldiers in May 1780. ## Victory at Last In January 1781, American forces under Daniel Morgan dealt a crushing defeat to Tarleton at Cowpens, South Carolina. Two months later, at Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina, Nathanael Greene, while conducting a campaign of strategic retreats, inflicted heavy losses on Cornwallis. Cornwallis moved to Virginia and encamped at Yorktown, located on a peninsula that juts into Chesapeake Bay. Washington seized this opportunity to surround Cornwallis. He led a combined force of American and French troops (under the Marquis de Lafayette). The French fleet also blocked British ships and prevented them from landing supplies and reinforcements. The British were defeated. The American victory at Yorktown on October 17, 1781 cemented American independence. ## The Treaty of Paris In September 1783, American and British negotiators concluded the Treaty of Paris. The American delegation (John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay) won recognition of American independence. They also secured the region between Canada and Florida east of the Mississippi River, and the right for New Englanders to fish in Atlantic waters off Canada. The Treaty did not address Spain’s claims to Florida, nor did it address the disputed borders between the United States and Native nations. British negotiators also demanded that the Americans not persecute loyalists. The Treaty of Paris marked the end of the Revolutionary War. The newly independent United States had gained independence from Great Britain. It included the thirteen colonies, along with land east of the Mississippi River. The Treaty marked the beginning of the nation’s development. ## Glossary - **Continental Congress** - First meeting of representatives of the colonies (Philadelphia, 1774) to formulate actions against British policies. - Second Continental Congress (1775-1789) conducted the war and adopted the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. - **Lexington and Concord, Battles of** - April 19, 1775 - The first shots fired in the Revolutionary War, near Boston. - **Bunker Hill, Battle of** - June 17, 1775 - The first major battle of the Revolutionary War, near Boston. - **Continental Army** - Authorized by the Continental Congress (1775) to fight the British. - Commanded by General George Washington. - **Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation** - November 1775 - Issued by the British governor of Virginia, the earl of Dunmore. It offered freedom to slaves who joined the British forces. - **Declaration of Independence** - July 4, 1776 - The document that declared American independence from Britain. - Drafted by a committee of the Second Continental Congress, including principal writer Thomas Jefferson. - **Common Sense** - January 1776 - A pamphlet anonymously written by Thomas Paine that attacked the English principles of hereditary rule and monarchical government. - **Our parent state** - A less-often used term for "mother country." - Refers to Great Britain. - **When every scheme that tends to peace, is branded with ignominy.** - Seabury believed that overtures to peace were disdainfully rejected, instead of being met with gratitude. - **Grand Congress** - The Second Continental Congress, which convened in May 1775. The term was used by Seabury in January 1775. - **A foreign power** - If written by Jefferson, the term refers to Great Britain. - Seabury refers to the colonists and leaders who support independence. - **Distinguished like some new species** - Paine’s sarcastic term for the views of hereditary monarchs. - **Posterity are virtually involved in the context.** - Paine’s term for future generations. - **Set us at variance** - Paine’s observation that nations at war with Great Britain would also have issue with the North American colonies. - **Asylum for mankind** - Paine envisioned the colonies as a refuge for freedom, equality, and the right to change a nation's foundation. - **Saratoga, Battle of** - October 17, 1777 - Major defeat of General John Burgoyne and more than 5,000 British troops. - **Brant, Joseph** - Mohawk military, political, and diplomatic leader who led the Haudenosaunee against the British colonists during the Revolutionary War. - The brother of Molly Brant. - **Brant, Molly** - Mohawk leader who coordinated efforts with the British and with Loyalists during the Revolutionary War. - Sister of Joseph Brant. - **Paya Mataha** - Chickasaw military and diplomatic leader who worked during the American Revolution. - He attempted to make peace among Native nations and tried to keep them out of European conflicts. - **Yorktown, Battle of** - October 17, 1781 - The last battle of the Revolutionary War. - General Lord Charles Cornwallis surrendered along with over 7,000 British troops. - **Treaty of Paris** - September 3, 1783 - The treaty ending the Revolutionary War officially recognized American independence. - It established the border between Canada and the United States. - It ceded Florida to Spain.