Year 9 Environmental Studies Notes PDF

Year 9 Environmental Studies Sacred Heart College Senior School Scholastic Year 2024-2025 Ms A. Briffa & Mrs H. Zarb Marmara’  Topic Subject foci Learning Outcomes Tectonic activity, rock formation and...

Year 9 Environmental Studies Sacred Heart College Senior School Scholastic Year 2024-2025 Ms A. Briffa & Mrs H. Zarb Marmara’  Topic Subject foci Learning Outcomes Tectonic activity, rock formation and LO 2 1. Rocks weathering Resources, Waste Management and LO 4 2. Soil Climate Change Resources, Waste Management and LO 4 3. Farming Climate Change Resources, Waste Management and LO 4 4. Waste Climate Change Social and Economic Development in LO 5,7 Malta: AD 1400-2004 5. Population Social and Economic Development in Malta: the present day Social and Economic Development in LO 7 Malta: AD 1400-2004 6. Settlement Social and Economic Development in Malta: the present day 7. Maltese LO 11 Built Heritage: Maltese built Heritage: Prehistory to Prehistory to Medieval Medieval Period) Malta’s Built Heritage: Knights to LO 5,11,12 8. The Knights’ Present Day Period Social and Economic Development in Malta: AD 1400-2004 9. Vernacular Malta’s Built Heritage: Knights to LO 11 architecture Present Day 10. The Self, LO 6,8 Family and Work and Family Space Society 11. Leisure Society and Culture LO 5,6 1 Learning Outcome 2: I can describe the composition of the Earth’s structure and the factors leading to plate movement, volcano formation and rock weathering. Topic 1: Rocks The Rock Cycle MQF L1 2.1g Outline the different types of rocks – igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. MQF L2 2.2g Label the rock cycle diagram outlining the rocks. MQF L3 2.3g Describe the formation of the three types of rocks. Mention examples. Rocks are being formed, worn away, and formed again. This is called the rock cycle. It takes thousands of years for these rocks to form. There are three types of rocks: Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed due to the immense heat found inside the earth. When rocks are molten due to this immense heat, they are called magma. Once that magma cools and solidifies, igneous rocks are formed. Igneous rocks contain crystals. The size of the crystals depends on how quickly the molten magma solidifies. The slower the magma cools, the bigger the crystals. Some examples of igneous rocks are basalt, granite and tuff. Basalt looks like rope, and it is very runny when hot. It also has a small hole from where 2 gas would have escaped. Granite has big crystals, whilst tuff looks like millions of small specks of dust and tiny bits of rock stuck together. Basalt Granite Tuff Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks start to form when layers of sediment (mud, clay, animal remains) are deposited at the bottom of seas and lakes. Over millions of years, the layers get squashed by other layers above them and through movements inside the earth these fragments are cemented and compressed together to form sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks often have fossils in them. Plants and animals that have died get covered up by new layers of sediment and are turned into stone. Sedimentary rocks are rocks made up of particles that were compressed and cemented together and that contain fossil remains. Sandstone, shale and limestone are all examples of sedimentary rocks. Sandstone, as the name implies, has sand grains in its layers and feels rough. Shale is often grey in colour and the mud grains give it a smooth touch. Limestone will ‘fizz’ if you put vinegar (a weak acid) on it. 3 Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks form by changing from the other two rock types to metamorphic rocks. Igneous and sedimentary rocks change into metamorphic rocks when due to earth movement they are buried or squeezed. This means that these rocks face extreme heat and pressure which chemically change their minerals and transform in metamorphic rocks. Marble, slate and mica schist are examples of metamorphic rocks. Marble originated from limestone before being put under extreme heat and pressure. Slate is a hard and smooth rock which has been squashed. It tends to break into thin sheets. Mica schist has mica glitter like silver, and the rock has a wavy look. Marble Slate Mica schist 4 Maltese Geology MQF L1 2.1h Name the Maltese sedimentary rocks: Upper Coralline Limestone, Greensands, Blue Clay, Globigerina Limestone, Lower Coralline Limestone. MQF L2 2.2h Characteristics and uses of all Maltese rocks. Include: impermeability, porosity, hardness and utilisation. MQF L3 2.3h Account for the presence of fossils in the Maltese geological stratigraphy. The Formation of the Maltese Rocks The geological history of the Maltese Islands may be said to have begun about 25 million years ago. The site which these Islands now occupy was once only a seabed where millions of algae and minute organisms gathered and deposited themselves. By time, with the addition of sand and other material, all these were placed together and became hard rock. With more accumulations, strata (layers) of rock were formed and obviously each stratum took millions of years to take shape. Then there must have been some uplift of the land below the sea. This could have been caused by the folding of the land due to the pressure made by the continent of Africa when crashing into Europe. As a result, rock-tops appeared above sea level. This must have taken place about 10 million years ago. About 6 million years ago, the Mediterranean Sea was cut off from the rest of the oceans and began to dry up. With the subsidence of the waters, the land between the Maltese Islands and Sicily appeared above the surface of the sea which resulted in a one continuous strip of dry land between some European countries. Consequently, animals could move freely from Sicily to Malta. This is why animal remains are found at Ghar Dalam. However, about 5 million years ago, the level of the Atlantic Ocean rose higher, possibly owing to the melting of ice at the end 5 of one of the Ice Ages. The sea dashed in through what is now known as the Strait of Gibraltar. Most parts of the Mediterranean Basin were flooded and only the top of high lands remained above sea level. In this way, the Maltese Islands were cut off from Sicily. There was another Ice Age about 2 million years ago and the level of the sea in the Mediterranean was lowered, making the Maltese Islands and Sicily one landmass. Sea water flushed in again thousands of years ago making Malta the islands we know today. Malta’s Geological Areas The island of Malta is broadly divided into two geological regions. On the surface of the Northwestern region one mainly finds Upper Coralline Limestone, but on the eastern region the surface rock is Globigerina Limestone. The Blue Clay can be seen along the edges of the Upper Coralline Limestone in the Western Region. If you go to Ghajn Tuffieha Bay you can easily notice this layer of soft, grey rock. However, if one wants to see the Lower Coralline Limestone outcrop, one has to go to Ghar Lapsi or Wied iz-Zurrieq. 6 The Rocks of the Maltese Islands Upper Coralline Limestone: In Maltese it is called Qawwi ta’ Fuq. This is the youngest rock layer. This type of rock is very hard. It is generally found on hill tops and plateaux. Marfa The whole surface of Comino is UCL. The rock is crystalline, and remains of shells and marine organisms can still be seen in it. The soil formed by UCL is called Terra Rossa which is reddish in colour. Greensands: In Maltese it is referred to as il- Gebla s-Safra or Ramli. It is referred to as ‘safra’ because of its yellowish green colour when it is exposed to the weather. It is a very fragile rock and it erodes quickly into sand. It is found in the hill called Dingli Gelmus in Gozo. In some places it is absent and not found throughout the island. 7 Blue Clay: In Maltese this is referred to as Tafli. This rock is impermeable, meaning that it does not let water pass through. In this way, water tables are formed. Qammiegh Blue Clay is found in many hillslopes and farmers transform it into terraced fields to hold the soil in place. These can be found in areas like Wardija Ridge, Verdala and Buskett. Globigerina Limestone: In Maltese this is referred to as Franka. This is the most common rock found on the surface of the Maltese Islands. This rock is much harder than Blue Clay. When found on the surface it can Delimara provide large and fairly smooth plains. Because of its softness, it can be quarried easily. Lower Coralline Limestone: This rock in Maltese is referred to as Qawwi t’Isfel or Zonqor. This rock layer is the oldest, as it was the last to be formed when millions of years ago the land was still under the sea. This type of rock is exposed on cliff Blue Grotto sides facing the sea. 8  When found on the surface, further inland it forms rugged and barren plains of corroded rocks, because of rainwater action. This landscape is referred to as karst, as found in Bahar ic-Caghaq. Uses of Rock The hardness of the Lower Coralline Limestone is used for breakwater building. The Globigerina Limestone is easily quarried and since it is the most common type of rock layer on the islands it is used for house building. Blue Clay is used for pottery to produce vases, plates and other ornaments. Limestone blocks used for building Upper Coralline Limestone is put to industrial use as spalls for road making and also for concrete mixing. Water in the Rocks It was already mentioned that Blue Clay does not allow water to pass through. Thus, we call Blue Clay an impermeable rock. But water passes through limestone and so the UCL is a permeable rock. When rainwater falls on the Upper Coralline Limestone, it slowly sinks into the limestone until it meets the Blue Clay over which it starts to collect. The level of water in the rocks forms the water table. The heavier the rainfall, the higher the water table in the rocks. 9 Fossils as Part of Our Natural Heritage Fossils consist of plant and animal remains. When a plant or animal dies, part of it is left on the earth. That part becomes trapped in the sediments, and sediments become rock. Once the rock forms, the fossil is trapped inside. Some fossils are destroyed because sediments Fossils trapped inside rock undergo a lot of heat and pressure when they become rocks, which might destroy the fossils. Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. The fossils found in the Maltese Islands are skeleton remains of seashells, urchin remains, sharks’ teeth and algae remains. Fossils are evidence that rocks in the Maltese Islands were founded under the sea in the geological period referred to as Oligo-Miocene. Remains of toothed whales put on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Mdina 10 Rock Weathering MQF L1 2.1i Recognise illustrations showing different types of weathering. Onion-skin weathering/exfoliation; biological weathering; chemical weathering. 2.1j Define Weathering and/or Erosion. Explain the difference. MQF L2 2.2i Identify features in the Maltese Islands related to chemical weathering. Caves; dolines; garigue landscapes. 2.2j Mention places in the Maltese archipelago with features of chemical and/or biological weathering. (Example: Maqluba; Buskett). MQF L3 2.3i Describe different modes of rock weathering. Physical: Freeze-Thaw/Frost Shattering; Onion-skin weathering/exfoliation; biological and chemical weathering. What is Weathering? Rocks that are exposed to air, water, changes in temperature and vegetation become vulnerable to weathering. Weathering includes the breaking up (disintegration) and decay (decomposition) of rocks in places where they were formed. Unlike erosion, weathering does not involve the movement of material. Weathering is the breakup of rocks due to the exposure to the atmosphere. Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks by the action of water, wind, ice or gravity. 11 Three Types of Weathering There are 3 types of weathering, as described below: 1. Physical Weathering This happens when rock is broken into smaller pieces by physical processes. It is most likely to occur in areas of bare rock where there is no vegetation to protect rock from extremes of weather. a. Freeze-thaw or Frost Shattering Common when the temperature is around freezing point and where exposed rocks contain many cracks. Water, entering crack during the day, freezes during colder nights. As the water turns to ice it expands and due to the increase in pressure cracks are widened. When the temperature rises the ice melts and pressure is realised. This repeated process weakens the rock until pieces break off. b. Exfoliation or Onion Weathering This occurs in very warm climates where exposed rock is repeatedly heated and cooled. During the day, the surface layers of rock are heated and therefore expand. At night, they cool down and contract. By time, this causes the outer layers to peel off, like those of an onion, leaving steep-sided rounded hills and boulders. 12 2. Chemical Weathering This happens when water and air activate chemical changes that cause rock to rot and decay. Chemical reactions are the greatest where the climate is very warm and wet. Limestone solution is an example of chemical weathering. It occurs when carbonic, which occurs naturally as a weak solution in rainwater, reacts with rocks, such as limestone, which contain calcium carbonate. As the limestone slowly dissolves, it is removed by running water to create distinctive landforms. 3. Biological Weathering This occurs when either tree roots puncture and widens a crack in a rock, or when acids released by decaying vegetation attack the rock. In Malta this can be especially seen in Buskett. 13 Chemical Weathering Features in Malta The processes of weathering and erosion work concurrently and slowly change the topography of the Maltese Islands. We must consider that today’s landscape including valleys, hills, bays, creeks, plains and cliffs are not permanent but are ever-changing and they will be very different in future. Weathering and erosion do not affect all types of rock in the same manner. Some rock layers are easily broken while others take ages to be weathered. Cave Formation: In the Maltese Islands one can find a number of underground caves and passages that were dug up by rainwater over a long period of time. Some of the most famous caves include Għar Dalam and Għar Ħasan in Malta, as well as Ta’ Ninu and Ta’ Xerri Caves in Gozo. Often rainwater and spring waters Hasan Cave percolate into the rocks. This happens because all the rocks in Malta are porous, having many deep cracks and joints. Rainwater enters these cracks, flows over the layer beds, and forms street-like passages in the rocks. While flowing in these passages, the water widens them and also forms large underground caves. Stalagmites and Stalactites: In many caves around the world the acidic waters form spectacular features. The water which slowly drips from the ceiling builds columns called stalactites if hanging from the ceiling and stalagmites if rising from the ground. On its way down acidic water dissolves some of the limestone rocks. When the drop is Ninu’s Cave 14 hanging on the ceiling part of it evaporates and some of it will drop. Each drop leaves a lens of calcium carbonate or lime and in time a cone forms called stalactite. When the drop falls to the ground it slowly forms a stalagmite. The water which falls from the ceiling dries up leaving a lens of lime, which in time accumulates upward. Dolines: Around Malta many large basin shaped holes can be found. These features called dolines were formed when the ceiling of some large cave collapsed. The most renowned are those at Maqluba in Qrendi and Dwejra in Gozo. The doline at Maqluba started as a large cave which was formed by Maqluba rainwater which used to percolate through the rocks and slowly dissolving the calcium carbonate. The rock further weakened as more water passed through. The cave widened and eroded until the ceiling collapsed under its own weight. This left a large oval hole in the ground about 40 metres deep and 91 metres wide. Garigue Landscapes: Garigue landscapes are another weathering feature found in the Maltese Islands. The most typical terrain is dominated by karstic plateaux. These form when Upper Coralline Limestone (Qawwi ta’ Fuq) or Lower Coralline Limestone (Qawwi ta’ Isfel) become Garigue landscape in Comino scarred and potholed through the action of acid rain reacting with chemicals in the air. 15 These potholes eventually collect enough soil to support a thriving population of shrubs and other herbaceous plants. The resulting vegetation community is collectively known as garigue. The best stretches of garigue in the Maltese Islands are the ones on Dingli Cliffs, Pembroke, the Park tal-Majjistral, L-Ahrax tal-Mellieha in Malta and the entire area around the Ta’ Cenc Cliffs from Mgarr ix-Xini to Xlendi in Gozo. Comino is also another garigue paradise. Land Faulting MQF L1 2.1k Define land faulting. MQF L2 2.2k Mention a prominent fault in Malta (The Great Fault and Magħlaq Fault). MQF L3 2. 3k Explain how land movement shaped the relief of Malta: Great Fault; Magħlaq Fault; rift valleys (ex. Pwales Valley). Land Faulting The movement of the crust which was active millions of years ago when the rocks of the Maltese Islands were being formed left its mark on the topography of the Islands. Due to massive movements the land began to crack and to collapse. We can observe a series of parallel cracks or faults in the north-west of Malta which cross the islands in a south-west to north-east direction. Along these faults parts of the rock slid past one another. Some were raised to form hills or ridges, while others collapsed to form valleys. As can be seen in the diagram, earth movements cracked the land which slid down or faulted with the resultant tension. By a similar process many ridges and valleys were formed in the Maltese islands. Where the land faulted one finds valleys such as Pwales, Għadira and Mistra. 16 Where the land rose one finds hills such as Wardija Ridge, Miżieb Ridge and Mellieħa Ridge. As can be seen in the map, the Maltese Islands are fractured into a number of cracks or faults. The longest one which divides Malta into two from Fomm ir-Riħ to Madliena, is known as the Great Fault. There are many other complementary and parallel faults which have the same south-westerly to north-easterly direction. On the other hand, the Magħlaq Fault crosses the Maltese Islands along the Għar Lapsi coast in a north-westerly to south-easterly direction. The Victoria Lines were built at the place where the land slid down between 100 and 180 metres. The British built this fortification along the Great Fault, so that they could counter any attack which the enemy attempted if the latter landed in one of the large bays of the North. 17 Another long and deep fault is found at Magħlaq. It is more than 3 kilometres long and stretches along the coast near Għar Lapsi in a north-west to south-east direction. Maghlaq Fault Another example is when all the rock which stood between Għar Lapsi and Filfla collapsed by more than 200 metres as a result of considerable movement. These rocks now form the seabed between Malta and Filfla. Filfla 18 Learning Outcome 4: I can differentiate between renewable and non- renewable resources, demonstrate an understanding of soil formation processes and different terrestrial and marine farming processes and sources of sea pollution and demonstrate knowledge of challenges associated with waste management and global climate change. Topic 2: Soil Soil: A Natural Resource MQF L1 4.1c Recognise the importance of soil as a natural resource. 4.1d Name factors leading to soil formation. Weathering and erosion of rock; availability of humus content. The five soil forming factors: Parent material, Organisms, Topography, Time and Climate. MQF L2 4.2c Elaborate on the importance of soil as a natural resource. 4.2d Describe soil composition. Weathered parent rock; water; air; living organisms; decaying organic matter. Soil Mixture Soil is defined as a covering over most of the earth’s land surface. It is made of particles of rock and minerals, living things and the remains of living things. It takes thousands of years to form. Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic matter which develops at the earth’s surface. Soil is a natural mixture of: Fragmentation of the bedrock - when rock is exposed to the atmosphere, its surface corrodes (breaks) and the loose broken debris which is collected forms a cover called regolith. Organic remains of decayed vegetation and small animals – these remains form the humus, which is black and so the upper layer of the soil looks 19  darker than the sub soil. The humus plays a very important part in maintaining the fertility of the soil. Inorganic matter from surface accumulation – this consists of various sizes and shapes of rock and mineral. These elements and compounds may be silicon, aluminium, iron, oxygen, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Air – soil is air enriched with carbon dioxide but deficient in oxygen owing to the respiration of plants. Water – soil is water enriched with dissolved substances washed from the soil and vegetation. Soil is a vital resource because it is important for an ecosystem to function, for crops to grow so that people could be able to consume. We depend on it for most of the food that we eat and without it we wouldn’t be able to survive. Soil Formation 20 The process of soil formation is affected by the following five factors: Parent Material This is the material from which the soil is formed. Soil parent material could be bedrock, organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or material moving down a slope. Climate Weathering forces such as heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine and other environmental forces, break down parent material and affect how fast or slow soil formation processes go. Organisms Organisms (including all plants, animals and micro- organisms) affect the soil. The amount of water and nutrients plants need affects the way soil forms. The way humans use soils affects soil formation. Moreover, animals living in the soil affect decomposition of waste materials and how soil materials will be moved around in the soil profile. On the soil surface remains of dead plants and animals are worked by microorganisms and eventually become organic matter that is incorporated into the soil and enriches the soil. Topography The location of soil on a landscape can affect how the climatic processes impact it. Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on slopes. Also, mineral accumulations, plant nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion and water drainage are dependent on topographic relief. Time All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often hundreds or thousands of years. Soil profile continually change from weakly developed to well developed over time. 21 The Four Main Components of Soil Texture: it means the ‘feel’ of the soil and it depends on the particles on the soil. Particles are grouped according to their size. The type of soil can be made of clay, silt and sand. If it feels gritty it has a sandy texture, if it feels sticky it has a clayey texture and if it is smooth and silky it has a loamy texture. Depth: Some soils are very shallow and contain many fragments of rock while other soils can be several metres deep. The effective depth of soil for plant growth is the vertical distance into the soil from the surface to a layer that essentially stops the downward growth of plant roots. The barrier layer may be rock, sand, gravel, heavy clay or a cemented layer. Soils that are deep, well-drained and have desirable texture are suitable for most garden or landscape plants. Plants growing on shallow soils also have less mechanical support than those growing in deep soils. Those growing in shallow soils are easily blown over by wind than those growing in deep soils. Colour: Soil has different colours depending on various factors such as climate, weathering and organic content amongst other factors as seen below. The colour of the soil gives indications of its composition and the conditions that the soil is subjected to. 22  Colour Acidity Example of plants Green Alkaline Sugar beet, lettuce Yellow green Neutral Wheat, barley, turnip, most garden plants Yellow Slightly acidic Potatoes, cabbage, oats, rye Orange Acid Grass Red Very acid Heather Organic Content: The organic content of soil greatly influences the plant, animal and microorganisms’ populations in the soil. Decomposing organic material provides many necessary nutrients to soil inhabitants. Without fresh additions of organic matter from time to time, the soil becomes deficient in some nutrients and soil populations decrease. Organic material is made of carbon compounds, which when heated to high temperatures are converted to carbon dioxide and water. Soil Profile MQF L1 4.1e Label a simple soil profile diagram. MQF L2 4.2e Describe a simple soil profile (include rock layers O, A, B, C and R and characteristics). Soil Profile Over time layers of soil are formed to create a soil profile. But although there are all these components in the soil, the mixture is / Humus not formed haphazardly. Indeed, the elements take a long time to settle but when they do, they organise themselves into layers called horizons, parallel to the ground surface. 23 So, a soil profile may be defined as: ‘The vertical section of the soil showing all the soils’ horizons’. Soil profiles look different in different areas of the world. They are affected by climate and other factors. The five soil horizons are: The O horizon is the topmost horizon. It is referred to as organic/humus layer. It contains quite a bit of living material and humus – plants, decaying leaves, moss, etc. This is a thin horizon and is often very dark in colour. The A horizon is below the O horizon. It is made mostly of minerals and it is the location of quite a few plant roots. This layer is also dark in colour due to the amount of humus located. This is referred to as the topsoil layer. The B horizon is below the A horizon. It’s also known as the subsoil layer. This horizon is usually lighter in colour and has less organic material than the layers above it. The B horizon is described by the kind and amount of minerals found within it. The C horizon is below the B horizon. It contains some parent material that has been slightly weathered. Because this layer is deeper than the layers above it, the material in this layer is usually less weathered. The R horizon is the lowest horizon. It is the layer of bedrock which makes it a solid rock layer. 24 Maltese Soils MQF L1 4.1f Name different Maltese soils. Terra Rossa; Carbonate Raw Soils; Xerorendzina Soils. MQF L2 4.2f Describe the features of Maltese soils. Terra Rossa; Carbonate Raw Soils; Xerorendzina Soils. MQF L3 4.3f Describe the characteristics of Maltese soils. Climate; parent material; permeability. Different Types of Maltese Soils In Malta, one can find three different kinds of soil: Terra Rossa This is found where there are the Upper Coralline Limestone, Globigerina and Lower Coralline Limestone layers. This soil has a low percentage of calcium carbonate. It is usually shallow and stony and red in colour, especially when wet. Xerorendzinas This soil is characteristic of the Globigerina areas and in fact, it is a mixture of Globigerina and Greensand and organic matter, which give it an ash-grey colour. It is highly rich in stone and chalk content and very low in humus. Carbonate Raw Soil This is usually found where there is Blue Clay. It is a very young soil and very low in humus. It is an immature type of soil and it is whitish in colour. It holds much water and it makes it difficult to work during the winter. With the addition of lime and manure, it becomes good for agriculture. 25 Soil Erosion MQF L1 4.1g Define soil erosion MQF L2 4.2g Describe the physical and/or human causes of soil erosion. Deforestation; up and down ploughing; overgrazing; soil exhaustion; collapsed rubble walls; urbanisation in countryside areas; habitat destruction. MQF L3 4.3g Discuss how physical and/or human factors bring about soil erosion. Soil erosion is the removal of soil by wind or water. Where leaves capture rainfall and roots bind the soil together, soil erosion is slow. Where people and animals have removed the vegetation cover, soil erosion can be a serious problem. Soil erosion is a natural process but in some places it has been increased by bad farming practises as seen in the diagram below: Wind Physical Rain Deforestation Soil erosion Up and down ploughing Rubble wall collapse Human Soil exhaustion Overgrazing Urbanisation 26 The natural processes are caused by wind and rain. Soil is usually blown away by the wind or washed away by the water running over the ground’s surface. Erosion is the greatest on steep slopes where the soil is bare. It is the least, where there is a thick cover of vegetation. This is because plants and trees provide shelter from rain and wind and their root systems hold together the soil particles making them difficult to remove. Other causes of soil erosion are due to human processes. These include: Overgrazing: sometimes too many animals are kept in one area. They eat all the vegetation, and it dies off. This leaves the ground bare and unprotected. Wind and rain then carry away the loose soil. Up and down ploughing: farmers find it easier to plough up and down a slope rather than across. When it rains, water flows straight down to furrows and takes with it large amounts of soils. The furrows can quickly turn into deep gullies. Deforestation: this is the clearing away of forests, usually so that the land can be used for growing crops. Once the trees have gone there are no leaves to protect the soil from rainfall and no roots to hold the soil in place. This makes it easy for the soil to be washed or blown away. This increases surface run- off and throughflow. It decreases evapotransportation. Soil exhaustion: sometimes the soil is overused by the growing of too many crops. Eventually it loses its goodness, crops can 27  no longer grow and the bare soil is quickly removed by the action of wind and water. Collapsed rubble walls: rubble walls are important structures that bind the soil together in fields. Often, these rubble walls collapse during heavy rainfall causing the soil to be swept away with the floods. Thus, the ecosystem in the fields would be changed due to the loss of soil. Extension of building sites: when urbanisation occurs, building sites are extended. Construction sites are seen in these sites and quarrying occurs. This makes the soil loose and can be easily eroded. 28 Soil Conservation MQF L1 4.1h Outline ways how soil erosion can be significantly reduced. Afforestation programmes; contour ploughing; crop rotation; controlled grazing; terraced fields. MQF L2 4.2h Describe the measures of soil conservation. Afforestation programmes; contour ploughing; crop rotation; controlled grazing; terraced fields; rubble walls; irrigation methods (drip & sprinkler). MQF L3 4.3h Discuss the importance of soil conservation and management for sustainable living. Aspects of soil conservation in SDGs 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), 13 (Climate change) & 15 (Life on Land). Soil Conservation and Management Below are some ways how soil erosion can be significantly reduced: Contour ploughing and strip copping: contour farming is ploughing around the hillside rather than up and down the slope. By ploughing parallel to the contours, the furrows trap rainwater and prevent the water from washing soil downhill. Strip cropping is when two or more crops are planted in the same field. Sometimes one crop may grow under the shelter of a taller crop. It is harvested at a different time of year and uses different nutrients from the soil. Often, the crops are rotated from year to year. 29  Terracing: terraces resembling large steps are built on many hillsides. Each terrace is flat and is fronted by a mud or stone wall known as bund. The bund traps both rainwater and soil. This allows rainwater time to infiltrate into the ground, leading to less surface run off. Afforestation: by planting more trees in a landscape, soil erosion will be reduced. This is because the roots will keep the soil compact and in this way no soil can be carried away by the wind or water. Crop rotation: this is a planned activity where specific crops are grown together in the same field. It means that each succeeding crop belongs to a different family than the previous one. The planned rotation can vary from 2, 3 or more years. Each crop has its own requirements and is grown in the same soil so that the soil still possesses different types of nutrients. Controlled grazing: this is a method used to regulate how often and how much to graze so that the quality, yield, consumption and persistence of forage from pasture is regulated. This optimises animal performance and reduces wasted forage. Through such method, farmers manage and control the duration and extent of pasture use. Such method aids in keeping uniform soil fertility since manure is evenly distributed, and reduces erosion problems. 30 Importance of Soil Conservation for Sustainable Living Soils support 95-98% of the global food supply. They also play many other key roles in climate regulation and carbon sequestration, the water cycle, and the development of traditional knowledge for landscape management. Soil quality and soil health are thus at the heart of sustainable development and their goals. Sustainable Development Goals The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to transform our world. They are a call to action to end poverty and inequality, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy health, justice and prosperity. In all there are 17 SDGs, but three of them focus on soil conservation. These are: SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities SDG 13: Climate change SDG 15: Life on land 31 Learning Outcome 4: I can differentiate between renewable and non- renewable resources, demonstrate an understanding of soil formation processes and different terrestrial and marine farming processes and sources of sea pollution and demonstrate knowledge of challenges associated with waste management and global climate change. Topic 3: Farming Farming in Malta MQF L1 4.1i Define arable, pastoral and mixed farming. MQF L2 4.2i List the main limitation of arable/mixed farming in Malta: Small field size; accessibility; shallow soils; poor humus content. MQF L3 4.3i Describe the importance of field terracing, rubble walls, irrigation, crop rotation and greenhouses for Maltese agriculture. Three Types of Farming There are three different farming methods: Arable Pastoral Mixed ploughing of land when the land is this takes place and growing of left with grass for when both meat crops the rearing of and crops are crops are grown to animals reared in the same eaten or sold animals are reared area either for by- products (wool, milk, eggs) or for meat 32 The Farmer’s Life In olden times, farming was Malta’s major economic activity. The majority of the Maltese people used to work in the fields. They used to grow a large quantity of fruit and vegetables in different seasons in their small fields bounded by rubble walls or prickly pear trees. Among other crops they grew potatoes, onions, globe artichokes, tomatoes, peas and cabbages. They also grew fruit trees such as oranges, lemons, peaches, small pears, plums and apricots. In the farms by their fields, they used to raise a cow or two, some sheep and goats, rabbits and hens, as well as a mule or donkey. The farmer used to work from early morning till late in the evening. All the family used to give a helping hand, even the children. They used to milk the cows, pick the potatoes, clean the animals and what not. All work was done by hand, or at most, with the help of a beast. Apart from this hardship, the Maltese farmer had to face many physical and human problems. Today, farmers also face limitations especially when it comes to arable and mixed farming. Some of the main limitations are: Field size: Malta’s small size and rapid urbanisation mean that farmers are left with small fields and therefore not enough space where to grow crops and/or rear animals. Accessibility: A farmer’s life is not an easy one as it comes with several difficulties like accessing land if the farmer’s family is not already in possession of one. Shallow soils: Maltese soils normally range from 20 to 75 cm deep, making it a shallow soil. This, together with other factors, means that the soil is not always very fertile and farmers have to feed the soil with natural and artificial fertilisers all the time. Poor humus content: Another factor that lessens the soil’s fertility is the quality of humus content. In Malta, soils usually contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate and alkaline, with very little humus content. Farming Methods Crop rotation: This is the practice of growing different crops in different years on the same land, in order to prevent the soil's nutrients from being 33  exhausted and to reduce the risk of a build-up of diseases and pests specific to one crop. Irrigation: This is the artificial distribution of water on the land in order to facilitate the cultivation of crops. Otherwise, owing to the lack of rainfall, agriculture would either suffer or be impossible. Field terracing: When fields are on a slope, the chances of soil erosion are higher. Therefore, farmers form terraced fields to keep the soil in place. Rubble walls: Rubble walls dominate the Maltese rural landscape and they were primarily built to separate the fields from the country lanes. They were also built to separate one field from another and to terrace the hillside with one wall at a lower level than the other. Water filters through the holes in between the stones of the rubble walls though the soil is kept in place. This is why it is very important that these walls be continuously maintained since without them the soil would be eroded and carried by the water into the sea. Greenhouses: The farmer has built special structures called greenhouses in order to reduce the impact of weather elements upon which he has no control such as torrential rain, heat, strong wind or hailstorms. These structures are usually made up of steel or wooden arcs covered in transparent materials such as plastic or glass, which allow the rays of the sun to penetrate but keep the heat from escaping. The farmer controls the internal temperature by opening or closing a number of windows as needed. In this way the plants that grow inside, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, vegetable marrows, eggplants, strawberries and flowers, are protected from any damage that can be caused if grown outside. These greenhouses allow the farmer to grow crops out of season and throughout the year. 34 Irrigation, Crop Rotation and Contour Ploughing MQF L1 4.1j Recognize traditional field irrigation methods. Traditional irrigation methods using open water masonry canals, reservoirs (ġwiebi) and wells (spejjer). MQF L2 4.2j Describe the purpose of crop rotation in agriculture. Mention the different type of crops in the crop rotation (leaf, roots, legumes and fruits). MQF L3 4.3j Explain how contour ploughing can aid water retention. Irrigation Methods Irrigation ensures a regular supply of water when most needed. It also helps to fertilise the land by distributing sediment. Other advantages include enabling the soil to produce more than one crop in a year and permitting more valuable crops to be grown. Fields can opt to include the digging of an open water canal that leads to an underground reservoir (giebja) which would harvest the field or greenhouses’ run off rainwater to save the extra water consumption. Wells (spejjer) could also be introduced nearby to collect rainwater as well. These are all sustainable and renewable practices that will not only save water but also reduce extra costs. Farmers also used to harness natural springs, wherever they existed. Namely in the west of Malta at Dingli and Rabat and on the flat-topped hills of Gozo, we find the perched aquifer just above the Blue Clay layer. When the rocks are saturated in winter, water will move sideways until it emerges by the slopes. This is how natural springs are formed. Today, due to urbanisation farmers have lost a number of the very few natural springs that existed in Malta and Gozo. 35 Crop Rotation The rotation of crops means a system of farming whereby different crops are grown in the same field in a planned series. This is done in order to: 1. save or increase the mineral and organic content of the soil; 2. increase crop yields; 3. eradicate insects and plant diseases. The duration of a complete cycle usually varies between two years and eight years, depending on the number of crops and their frequency of change. The Maltese farmer usually uses the four-year cycle. Thus: - First year of rotation: the field is manured and sown with leaf crops Second year: fruit crops Third year: root crops Fourth year: legumes crops Contour Ploughing As explained in Topic 2, contour ploughing is one of the ways to help conserve the soil. Farmers should never plough the fields up and down the hill-sides, especially in valleys and slopes. Rainwater passes quickly through the furrows dug by the farmer and it plucks and carries soil downhill. In such places farmers have built terraced fields and they plough the fields horizontally and perpendicularly to the slope so that water will not be able to carry the soil downhill. 36 Fertilisers and Organic Farming MQF L1 4.1k Recognize the environmental damage brought about using artificial pesticides and fertilisers (e.g. eutrophication). MQF L2 4.2k Describe the main characteristics of organic farming. Describe the difference between biological pest control and chemical pest control. MQF L3 4.3k Explain the advantages of the adoption of organic farming methods in agriculture. Mention the importance of crop rotation, manure, composting and biological pest control. Fertilisers Fertilisers are substances that provide nutrients to the soil or helps in soil fertility. This increases the number of crops and improves the quality of food. Effects of Fertilisers Using a lot of fertilisers, using a fertiliser when the ground is waterlogged (there is an excessive amount of water) or when the crop is not able to make use of the fertiliser might lead to run-off. This causes enrichment in lakes, streams and even the sea. This process is called eutrophication and leads to algal blooms. The nutrients in the fertiliser, especially nitrogen and phosphorus cause algae to grow. Chemical and Biological Pest Control Chemical and biological pest control is commonly referred to as pesticides. These control pests in order to maintain healthy crops. Chemical pesticides Chemical pesticides are substances produces in laboratories. When applied to crops, the pest populations decrease leaving crops unharmed. Chemical pesticides can kill pests when coming into contact with toxic substances, eliminate pest reproduction or 37  can even influence their behaviour. Most of these chemical controls are fast acting and effective. Biological pesticides Biological control involves the use of living organisms such as predators, parasites and the control of pests on agricultural crops. Biological control agents can be bred and reared in large numbers and then release into infected crops to reduce the populations of pests. Many pests that cause damage to crops easily live in the farming ecosystem because they are invasive and have no natural predators. Finding and importing predators of these invasive pests is essential for effective biological pest control. Effects of Pesticides While chemical controls are often effective they are usually seasonal and have to be applied again with each growing season. Biological control may take a longer period of time to see the desired results. Many chemical pesticides might damage other organisms rather than the pests they should control. Pest populations can also build up resistance to chemicals over time. Organic Farming Organic farming is a sustainable method of farming that makes use of techniques such as crop rotation, compost and biological pest control to maintain the fertility of soil. Such method of farming does not use man-made pesticides, 38 herbicides, livestock antibiotics, food additives and genetically modified organisms and additives to grow crops and raise animals. Advantages of Organic Farming Consumer benefits: o Organically grown plants contain high vitamin and mineral content when compared to crops grown in farms not using organic farming. Healthy plants mean healthy people, and such better nourished plants provide better nourishment to people and animals alike. o It does not have any form of contamination since no pesticides are used. Thus, it also reduces the chance of getting sick. o Food tastes better and can be stored for longer. Farmer benefits: o A healthy plant grown in an organic manner resists diseases and insect pests. o Organic farming saves the farmer from spending money on expensive insecticides, fungicides and other pesticides. o Organically grown plants can resist more drought. Environmental benefits: o Organic agriculture produces less greenhouse gas emissions and is considerably more climate friendly. o Organic farming does not cause algal blooms. Disadvantages of Organic Farming Organic farming requires more time for the crops to grow. More skills are required to farm organically. The production of the food items is not enough to meet the demand of people who want to buy them. Organic food items tend to be rather expensive. Crop rotation prevents the produce from being produced all year long. Therefore, organic food may not be available during any given season. 39 Learning Outcome 4: I can differentiate between renewable and non- renewable resources, demonstrate an understanding of soil formation processes and different terrestrial and marine farming processes and sources of sea pollution and demonstrate knowledge of challenges associated with waste management and global climate change. Topic 4: Waste Management Waste Management MQF L3 4.3s Distinguish different types of waste. Hazardous; organic; recyclable; other waste including construction and demolition waste, agricultural waste, municipal waste, industrial waste. MQF L1 4.1t Define the 3Rs of waste management. MQF L2 4.2t Describe the three Rs of waste management. Reduce; reuse; recycle. MQF L3 4.3t Discuss how the three Rs of waste management can be applied to the Maltese construction industry. Reutilisation of masonry; better management of vacant property; energy efficiency. Different Types of Waste Waste comes in many forms and sizes including: Commercial waste: waste consists of waste from premises used wholly or mainly for the purposes of a trade or business or for the purpose of sport, recreation, education or entertainment but not including household; agricultural or industrial waste. Municipal/Domestic waste: this type of waste comes from schools, offices and houses. It consists of waste coming from food remains, paper, plastic, etc. Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also be recycled). 40  Recyclable material: paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, fabrics, clothes, batteries, etc. Inert waste: construction and demolition waste (C&D waste), dirt, rocks, debris. Electrical and electronic waste: electrical appliances, TVs, computers, screens, etc. Composite wastes: textile waste, Tetra Packs made of plastic, metal and paper. Hazardous waste: including industrial waste, most paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans, fertilizer and containers. Agricultural waste: which includes both natural (organic) and non-natural wastes, is a general term used to describe waste produced on a farm through various farming activities. The 3 Rs of Waste Management The 3Rs stand for Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. These three words are pivotal to managing waste and helping to combat climate change. Reduce means to make smaller/less in amount. Reuse means to use something again, either for its original purpose or repurposed for a different task. Recycle means to convert waste into material that can be used to remake the item, or to make something else. You may have noticed that when referring to the 3Rs, we always say them in the same order: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. This is because this is the order that is most effective in helping us to reduce waste and greenhouse gas emissions. 41 Waste in Malta’s Construction Industry With a continuous boom of urban development, reutilisation of old and vacant buildings has become an ever increasing solution. The last census being carried out in 2021, concluded that around 81,000 properties are vacant or seasonally occupied. This is double the amount of vacant property that was recorded in the 2011 census. Solutions: 1. Incentives to buy and restore old property - Through the scheme: “Irrestawra Darek” the Authority is committing to finance (up to €10,000 per property) of the expenses for the works related to maintenance, restoration or replacement of traditional façade elements including masonry, timber elements and wrought iron works. In addition, the grant will also include a maximum of €800 and €200 for professional fees and Local Council permit fees respectively. 2. Reutilisation of Inert waste - Construction and demolition waste such as stone and mineral dust from excavation, are mostly used for backfilling of disused quarries and landfills. Recycling of C&D waste is another recovery operation being carried out. Approximately 90% of the total C&D waste recycled annually is recycled locally. Local recycling takes the form of: Aggregates for concrete and roadworks; Crushed material as ‘torba’; and Other material used for renovation works. Other waste deriving from construction and demolition activities, namely iron, steel and other mixed metals are exported for recycling. Although the main aim of such a tax incentive was to encourage excavation void owners to accept inert waste, thus increasing the available space for backfilling, the issue of not having enough space for the treatment of inert waste persists. 3. Energy efficient buildings – The recent Energy Performance of Buildings regulations look to implement requirements for buildings being built or renovated as of 1st July 2024. These aim to enhance energy efficiency by 42  setting specific performance targets, reducing energy consumption and waste, resulting in significant cost savings for building owners and occupants over time, while also lessening the environmental impact. Secondly, these requirements promote environmental sustainability by encouraging the use of renewable energy sources and reducing dependence on fossil fuels, contributing to carbon emission reduction, and aligning with broader sustainability goals. They also play a crucial role in mitigating climate change by minimising greenhouse gas emissions from buildings. Cost savings are another key benefit, as reduced energy consumption leads to lower utility bills, creating economic incentives for energy-efficient measures and improving indoor environmental quality for occupants. Waste Problems and Solutions MQF L1 4.1u List reasons for Malta’s waste and/or litter problem. Population density; tourism; lack of civic awareness; lack of landfill sites; current lifestyle patterns MQF L2 4.2u Describe possible solutions to Malta’s waste and/or litter problem. Waste separation; civic amenity sites; bulky refuse service. MQF L3 4.3u Explain how waste can be transformed into a resource. Recycling; engineered landfilling; incineration; composting; sewage treatment (New Water). Malta’s Waste/Litter Problem There could be several reasons for Malta’s waste and litter problems, amongst which: 1. Population density – Malta’s population is always on the increase and being a small island, this makes Malta a highly dense population. This also means that all the residents produce a lot of waste, for a tiny country. 2. Tourism – A high influx of tourists, especially in peak season, results in an addition to the already dense Maltese population. This means that during 43  the Summer months waste is also produced by the large number of tourists who visit the Islands. 3. Lack of civic awareness - An informed society is more likely to make responsible choices regarding consumption, use of materials and waste disposal. Awareness about the negative impacts of waste must be spread at all levels, from schools to companies, from families to communities. 4. Lack of landfill sites – More landfill sites would permit the authorities to manage to the increasing amount of waste that is being produced. 5. Current lifestyle patterns – Apart from being aware of the importance of managing waste, people need to be willing to change some habits in order to truly start making a difference. Throughout the recent years, we have already since small, yet significant, changes like that of carrying our own bag when shopping. Another lifestyle change that is currently underway is that of reducing plastic bottles. It is becoming increasingly more common to carry your own refillable water bottle, rather than buying plastic ones everyday. Possible Solutions Bring-In Sites In 2002 in association with Local Councils, WasteServ established Bring-in Sites where the public was able to deliver clean, source-segregated recyclable materials. The focus of bring-in sites is the 3R’s – Reuse, Reduce, and Recycle. The Bring-in Sites consist of four containers: blue for plastic, white for paper, brown for glass, black for metal. Through European Structural Funding, WasteServ Malta Ltd. was able to introduce up to 400 44 Bring-In Sites around Malta and Gozo. Light packaging materials from these bring-in sites are collected separately and taken to the Material Recovery Facility (MRF) at Sant' Antnin Waste Treatment Plant, where they are further hand sorted, packed in large bales and then sold on a monthly basis to the highest bidder to be exported for further treatment mainly in European & Asian countries. There are also: Civic amenity sites - exist to take care of bulky refuse waste (skips, including both household as well as commercial waste eg. large objects: tv’s, fridges, etc). These are taken by people to various sites around the island (check wasteserv website) eg. Maghtab, Hal Far, Ta Qali, etc or else call the local council to come pick them up. “Grey/green bag collection scheme” - Other recyclable waste that is collected every Tuesday and Thursday from the pavement outside homes. Used clothes/shoes bins to throw away unwanted clothes which are still in good condition. Recycling fashion items is a way to decrease the waste amount in Malta. The used clothes are sold in foreign countries, improving the green job in other countries, giving the opportunity to people of low income to buy cheap clothes. Expired medicine to be taken to pharmacies directly so they can dispose of accordingly. Organic bin to separate the organic residue of food is collected separately from the black bag. 45 Transforming Waste into Resources Waste Treatment Plants The Sant’Antnin waste treatment plant in Marsaskala is indeed considered essential for the following reasons: To increase waste separation in our country. To have the opportunity to recover materials from waste considered as a resource and in the same time relieving the burden on the landfill therefore gaining extra landfill space. The recovered material is exported for reuse and recycling. Landfills with reference to the closure of Maghtab The Magħtab as well Qortin dumps were closed down in April 2004. A national facility for the receipt, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste was set up at Ta’ Żwejra which is now closed and was the first to be operational after the EU banned uncontrolled dumpsites. Today, we have the Ghallis engineered landfill which is the fully functional engineered landfill with a membrane to control waste leakage risks. With the closure of the uncontrolled Maghtab dumpsite in 2004, the land could start to be rehabilitated. In fact, most of the area is now covered and rehabilitated with local shrubs and plants/native herb vegetation. The ultimate plan is to eventually become a recreational public park. The ‘Aerial Emissions Project’ was one of the first steps for its rehabilitation which included the installation of a Regenerative Thermal Oxidiser to treat harmful gases and a Reverse Osmosis Plant to treat contaminated water. Through this project, 99% of gases from the disused Maghtab dumpsite are being extracted and treated prior to safe emission into the atmosphere, while clean second class water 46  is also being generated and used for irrigation and dust suppression purposes on site. Producing compost. Compost is organic matter that has decomposed and recycled as fertiliser for soil. The process of composting involves making a heap of wetted organic matter eg. potato peels and other raw vegetable peels, tea bags, grass cuttings, egg boxes, animal manure from herbivores, etc. To produce electricity from waste by generating heat/gas alternative to fuel oil (waste is a resource in itself). An environmental assessment report, which describes these site investigations in detail, indicates that the principal hazards presented by the Maghtab site were: a. aerial emissions from combusting wastes; b. the stability of the waste masses, c. the impacts on local groundwater quality from leaching during the rainy season, d. landfill gas generation. In fact, aerial emissions of potentially hazardous gases and particulate matter were mostly being produced by the combustion of waste. Ground instability was also a major risk as the site is located immediately adjacent to a steep potentially unstable cliff above. 47  Engineered Landfills The Għallis and Ta’ Żwejra landfills are two engineered landfills situated within the ECOHIVE Complex. Ta’ Żwejra landfill was Malta’s first engineered landfill developed for the disposal of Municipal Solid Waste in a safe and sustainable way. It was mainly used between 2004 and 2006 and is now no longer in use. Għallis landfill, on the other hand, is WasteServ’s long-term engineered landfill facility and is still in use today. Engineered landfills are lined with different layers, including geo-synthetic and geo-textile membranes that prevent the leachate from infiltrating into the ground. Therefore, protecting the soil and ground water from pollution originating in the landfill. They also include gas extraction systems that allow for the collection, extraction and processing of gases, such as methane, to produce energy and reduce emissions. Engineered landfills marked a turning point in Malta’s waste treatment when they were first introduced as they resulted in improved practices for the betterment of the environment. A gas plant is used to treat harmful gases captured from the engineered landfills and from the old landfill as already mentioned above. In all cases, emissions are monitored to ensure that they remain within acceptable and safe levels. Qortin Landfill, Gozo In Gozo, rehabilitation and restoration of the Qortin landfill was achieved through the installation of an engineered capping and the planting of nearly 23,000 shrubs. Following the successful rehabilitation of the landfill, 48 a decision was taken to ensure that the area be made absolutely safe for the public to enjoy, through the installation of safety railings, fences and gates. Incineration - Thermal Treatment Facility Incineration is the process by which waste is burned in an incinerator (furnace oven) and the gases and heat that are released are then used to turn waste into energy for electricity. Inaugurated in December 2007, this plant in Marsa had its scope extended to accept a wide range of waste fractions for treatment. This incinerator, in fact, treats abattoir waste such as animal tissue remains. Sewage treatment (New Water) Untreated sewage in our seas is a thing of the past, with the inauguration of the Ta’ Barkat Sewage Treatment Plant, in Xghajra, making Malta the first Mediterranean country to treat all its sewage. The plant is the third and largest in a series of three, with the first one built in Gozo in November 2007 and the second one in Mellieħa, in October 2008. Once the plants started working, the beaches in the areas regained popularity. Sewage to the plant is pumped from Marsa, which receives around 80% of all drainage in Malta. Sewage is separated, and then the separate components are treated to be used as second class water for irrigation, and waste to be sent to the landfill. Moreover, the process used to treat sewage is used to produce biogas. In fact, it is possible to derive power from waste, as the plant produces one megawatt of electricity per hour, which is approximately enough to power 1,400 houses. 49 Before these three plants were built, all sewage used to pass directly into the sea, without any form of treatment. The treated water is ultimately thrown back into the sea, around a kilometre off the coast. 50 Learning Outcome 5: I can investigate and discuss political, social and economic changes, landmarks, developments and contrasts in Maltese society using primary and secondary sources. Learning Outcome 7: I can identify elements of society and culture. Topic 5: Population Population MQF L1 7.1a Define demography and population density. Define birth rate, death rate, population change, population distribution. MQF L2 7.2a Describe the impacts of a high population density on society and the environment. MQF L3 7.3a Discuss the impacts of a high population density on society and the environment. MQF L1 7.1b Define life expectancy and ageing population. MQF L2 7.2b Describe the impacts of an ageing population. MQF L3 7.3b Discuss the impacts of an ageing population. Important Definitions The density of population is the ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land. It is usually measured in persons per sq.km. For example, the area of Region X is 100 sq km and the population is 150,000 persons. The density of population is calculated by dividing 150,000 by 100. Distribution on the other hand, is how people are spread across the globe or a particular area depending on the resources available and whether the area attracts them to live there or not. Demography is the science of populations. Demographers seek to understand population dynamics by investigating three main demographic processes: Birt Migration Ageing/Death 51 Impacts of High Population Density The census carried out in 2021 by the National Statistics Office, shows that population has reached 516,000 - which is around 100,000 more people in the last 10 years. Malta is the most densely populated country in the EU and one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with about 1,649 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,280 inhabitants/sq mi). This means that Maltese residents, especially those living in densely populated towns, can be impacted by different nuisances, like: more waste more traffic congestion a bigger strain on social services lack of open spaces high housing prices a greater demand for water, energy and other commodities Ageing Population Global life expectancy soared from 34 years in 1913 to 72 years in 2022 and is expected to continue on that long-term trajectory. The term "life expectancy" refers to the number of years a person can expect to live. By definition, life expectancy is based on an estimate of the average age that members of a particular population group will be when they die. In Malta, life expectancy at 52 birth(years) has improved by 3.94 years from 77.9 years in 2000 to 81.8 years in 2021 (WHO). An ageing population refers to a significant increase in the number of individuals above the age of 65 in comparison to the younger population and as a proportion of the total population. This demographic change has profound social and economic consequences, including imbalances in society, changes in family structures, and impacts on healthcare, politics, and the economy. The age-dependency ratio is an age-population ratio of those typically not in the labour (the dependent part ages 0 to 14 and 65+) and those typically in the labour force (the productive part ages 15 to 64). It is used to measure the pressure on the productive population. Statistics issued by Malta Statistics Office show that > 20% of the population of Malta is over 65 years old. An ageing population is one of the most significant demographic and socioeconomic developments that the Maltese society is facing. An ageing population is expected to affect the labour market social protection housing, leisure transportation lifelong learning as well as family and intergenerational ties. 53 Migration MQF L1 7.1f Define migration: Internal; external; forced; voluntary; legal; illegal; immigration; emigration. MQF L2 7.2f Describe the push and pull factors of migration. War, economic; persecutions (political, religious, race, gender); natural disasters; environmental change MQF L3 7.3f Distinguish between emigration and immigration and be able to react to the problems created by these two. Solutions to problems generated by migration. Types of migration There are different types of migration: Internal migration: moving within a state, country, or continent for ex. from west to east of that country. External migration: moving to a different state, country, or continent for ex. From Malta to England. Emigration: leaving one place to live in another. Immigration: Arriving and living in the new place after leaving the country of origin. Forced migration: Leaving that country because of no other option/extreme reasons such as natural disasters. Voluntary migration: comes from a person's choice to relocate to an opportunity instead of fear for safety. Legal migration: entering a new country with all legal documents eg. Passport, permit for work and other law abiding approvals. Illegal migration: is the migration of people into a country that goes against the immigration laws of that country or without the legal right to live in that country. 54 Push and Pull Factors There are different factors why people migrate. These are called ‘push and pull factors’ which mean factors that force people out of a county, and attract them towards another. Often, people are forced to leave their country due to: war economic persecutions (political, religious, race, gender) natural disasters environmental change The opposite of the above push factors is what attracts people to move to particular countries. Like: higher wages better employment and educational opportunities higher standard of living peace freedom (political, religious, race, gender) Solutions for Migration Stop conflicts Increase average wealth levels in poor countries Improve education opportunities Improve social security and health insurance Fight extreme poverty Stop discrimination Fight global warming Reduce waste production Fight forced labour Increase overall living conditions for people in poor areas 55 Effects of Migration Immigration and emigration both leave effects on society, and that is why they are studied by demographers. As previously discussed, the recent increase of migrants in Malta has resulted in an inflation of around 100,000 inhabitants in the last 10 years. This means that this increase has led to more traffic, more waste production, multiculturalism and a bigger strain on social institutions like healthcare and education. At the same time, immigration can be important for a country as immigrants fill gaps in the workforce and fuel the economy. In order to deal with the effects of immigration, countries need to improve their infrastructure and services to make sure that they can take the increase of inhabitants. Societies need to be accepting to diverse cultures, whilst preserving culture heritage. Population Growth in Malta Along the Centuries MQF L1 5.1h Identify reasons why Malta had a constant growth of population from the AD 1530 to the present-day. MQF L2 5.2h Explain why the population of Malta grew steadily from AD 1530 to the present-day. MQF L3 5.3h Analyse the causes and effects of sharp changes in the Maltese population from AD 1530 to the present-day. Knights of St. John Period (1530-1798) The Knights period can be divided into two main parts: between 1530 and 1565 and between 1565 and 1798. 1530 was the time when the Knights of St. John came to Malta. For the Maltese this meant the beginning of a new era. During this period the Maltese population increased as many Maltese enjoyed a better standard of living. The arrival of the Knights gave rise to the building of our fortifications around the harbour area to protect the Maltese Islands from attackers. This was 56 especially after the Great Siege of 1565 when the Ottoman Empire (the Turks) attacked the Islands. The Knights eventually built Valletta to be a prominent defence point to both of our harbours since it was built on a peninsula overlooking Marsamxett and the Grand Harbour. Moreover, at the time it was common for pirate attacks to arrive at our shores and take people out at sea as their slaves. When the fortifications were built around the harbour area, people felt safer and this in fact led to the shift of the population from coastal areas (unprotected bays) to the harbour region. They also made sure to provide reservoirs to collect water, such as that found inside Fort St Elmo ditch. The knights also created job opportunities especially during the construction phase of the forts and Valletta. This further presented the need for people to be closer to their places of work since at the time there were no cars or public transport. Job opportunities also helped increasing the population at that time as many stonemasons migrated to Malta from Sicily. The British Period (1800-1964) During this time, Malta experienced World War II. The British continued to secure the Islands with the building of more forts, batteries and redoubts, but now the opposite to the Knights’ period happened. This is because the attacks now came from the airplanes not by ships, therefore the coastal areas became safer. Moreover, the attacks targeted the harbour area where most military resources were kept. Due to this, the coastal bays were safer to live in at this point. This was in fact, a crucial point for population shift – moving out from Valletta to the countryside and the places closer to the southern and northern part of Malta. In the north and north-west part of Malta, the new agricultural settlements of Manikata, Mgarr and Zebbiegh were formed. Land areas between Marsa and St Julians saw the foundation of new settlemnts: Pieta’, Msida, Gzira, Pembroke, Madliena, Ibragg. The suburbs which grew up around Sliema were mainly inhabited by the professional and business classes of the society at that time. Paola, Hamrun and Marsa housed the working-class families and grew at a faster pace than Sliema. Birkirkara, Qormi, Tarxien and Zabbar continued to develop since they were close to harbour. 57 During the 1st half of the 19th century Malta was negatively affected by economic depression and poverty. The 1813 plague and the 1837 cholera outbreak slowed down population growth. Also, slow progress made slum areas more popular especially in Valletta and the Three Cities – lower class people lived in a ‘kerrejja’. Slum areas like the Manderaggio and ‘kerrejja’ were of the highest risk because apart from poor sanitary conditions and poor ventilation, families were living very close to each other (overcrowded). Amenities were poor especially in the ‘kerrejja’ where one whole family lived in one or two rooms and tap water was shared with all the inhabitants, they had no bathroom and the drainage system was also inadequate. Solutions to Housing and Hygiene Problems Providing an adequate water supply and installation of sewers was the first step towards a better lifestyle that provided fresh water, more hygiene and avoiding the spread of diseases, dirt and sewage. Drainage installations started first outside the Grand Harbour area in 1875 and continued up to 1885 and then extended to areas such as Mtarfa and Kalkara. Domestic water supplies were introduced as well, however certain localities remained without any drainage systems until 1945. New roads were proposed to accommodate transport and new blocks of apartments and houses were being built. Post British Colonialism The baby boom (1960s) led to the construction boom (1980s) since all those babies born had now reached their 20s and needed their own homes. In fact, the government started the home ownership scheme (housing estates) which were the first blocks of apartments built in different places around Malta. This meant that anyone could buy a place to live in for a reduced price and so many families could now own and afford their own home. 58