Y3 History notes.pdf

Table of Contents TOPIC 1: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION...................................................................................................2 1) Long-term factors: Inequality of the Ancien Regime.........................................................2 2) Contributing (short-term) factors.............................................................................................2 3) Trigger factors................................................................................................................................ 2 TOPIC 2: THE CHINESE REVOLUTION..................................................................................................3 1) Long-term factor: Autocracy and the Middle Kingdom Mentality................................ 3 2) Long-term factor: Han vs Manchu divide.............................................................................. 3 3) Long-term factor: Chinese Defeat by the West in the Opium Wars............................ 3 4) Short-term factor: The Sino-Japanese War and the Failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement...................................................................................................... 4 5) Short-term factor: Failure of the 100 Days Reform........................................................... 5 6) Short-term factor: Rise of Revolutionary National Movements led by Sun Yat Sen and the Tong Meng Hui.................................................................................................................... 6 7) Short-term factor: The humiliation of the Qing by the West after the Boxer Uprising..................................................................................................................................................6 8) Trigger factor: Railway Nationalisation and popular protest..........................................7 9) Trigger factor: Mutiny at Wuchang..........................................................................................7 10) Trigger factor: Yuan Shikai’s betrayal of the Qing............................................................8 ANNEX A: SBQ SKILLS............................................................................................................................. 9 1) Inference (Y1 T2)........................................................................................................................... 9 2) Comparison (Y1 T3)......................................................................................................................9 3) Message & Purpose (Y2 T1)...................................................................................................... 9 4) Reliability (Y2 T2)..........................................................................................................................9 5) Utility (Y3 T2)................................................................................................................................. 9 6) Inference & Comparison (2-source Qn) (Y3 T2)............................................................... 11 ANNEX B: SEQ SKILLS............................................................................................................................14 1) King Louis XVI Essay (Y3 T1)..................................................................................................14 2) Cixi Essay (Y3 T2).......................................................................................................................14 CHAPTER 1: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789) Inquiry Focus: To what extent was inequality the main reason for the outbreak of the French Revolution? Factors behind collapse of the Bourbon Monarchy Long-term factors: 1) The Inequality of Ancien Regime (Political): Monarchy: ○ King: Absolute monarchy, where the King had the “divine right” to rule over the whole of France ○ Excessive opulence of the court and the lavish lifestyles of the aristocracy stood in stark contrast to the dire poverty experienced by many peasants. The nobility indulged in extravagant luxuries and excesses while the peasants struggled. First Estate: Clergy (1% of the population, owned 10% of the land) ○ Some are also nobility ○ Earned their money from tithes (taxes collected from the people by the Roman Catholic Church) ○ Did not need to pay taxes Second Estate: Nobility (2% of the population, owned 25% of the land) ○ Inherited their positions ○ Some were not as well off, and had to rely on collecting taxes from the people ○ Did not need to pay taxes Third Estate: Everyone else (97% of the population, owned 65% of the land) ○ Made of Bourgeouise (middle class-men, businessmen), Workers and Peasantry ○ Had to pay large taxes (still insufficient for the government to keep up with the huge costs of administering France and fighting wars to protect and expand its empire) ○ Peasants were extremely poor and struggled to even sustain themselves ○ Expected to obey the people of higher social classes Seigneur System: ○ Distribute small plots of his estate to individuals or small groups in exchange for payment of a range of fees, which included cash and the produce ○ Demand the corvée, requiring each male peasant to provide several days of unpaid labour on the seigneur’s own projects, such as working his land or repairing his house, fences etc. ○ Demand annual payment for the use of infrastructure which they owned, some of which were critical to life in a rural village, such as the flour mill, the baker’s oven, and the grape press etc. Impacts: Since the privileged were able to perpetuate the system of government to their own benefits, the nobility and clergy would only get more wealth, power and status as they prioritised the benefits of themselves while the peasants would suffer because of the inconsistent rules. These inconsistent rules can get extreme and make it hard for peasants to live. Thus, this caused mass frustration among the peasants. The desire for liberty, equality, and fraternity became rallying cries as the people of the Third Estate sought to overthrow a system that had oppressed them for generations. 2) Age of Enlightenment (Social): The Age of Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasised reason over superstition and science over blind faith Enlightenment Thinkers(e.g. Voltaire): ○ Questioned traditional authority, state of society, and government ○ Embraced the idea that humanity could be improved through rational change ○ Emphasized the rights of common men as opposed to the exclusive rights of the elites ○ Had a strong influence on French reformers ○ Their beliefs in natural rights of man inspired French Revolution ○ These ideas would eventually lay the foundation for modern, rational, democratic societies Challenged the long-held beliefs in the King’s absolute right to rule and presented new ideas of abolishing the class system and equal rights for all men – A vision of a new and more just society! ○ Bourgeoise presented with these new possibilities, began demanding for more reforms, laying the foundations for a political movement to challenge the power of the King and nobility Impacts: The Enlightenment's emphasis on individual rights and the idea that governance should be based on the consent of the governed resonated with the desire for fair treatment and freedom among peasants. While the direct impact may not have been immediate, the intellectual currents of the Enlightenment contributed to a growing awareness of the disparities in society, sparking a sense of injustice that played a crucial role in the lead-up to the French Revolution. Short-term factors: 1) Growing Financial Difficulties (Economic) Foreign Wars: France's escalating financial difficulties stemmed primarily from costly foreign wars, including the Wars of Austrian Succession (1740-1748), the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), and the American War of Independence (1776-1783). The expenses of these conflicts were shouldered by the people of the Third Estate through a new tax that persisted even after the war concluded. These wars economically drained France, leading to increased government borrowing. The gains from these wars failed to justify the exorbitant costs, contributing significantly to France's financial crisis. Failure to reform agricultural production: Adding to the financial difficulties, the government's failure to reform agriculture exacerbated economic challenges in pre-revolutionary France. Dependent on agriculture, the French economy struggled due to fixed, artificially low grain prices before the 1760s, disincentivizing production. Attempts to encourage higher production by lifting price controls backfired when merchants sold grain at unaffordable rates and peasants struggled to feed their families. This led to widespread discontent, so peasants seized grains in protest and sold them for fair prices. The resulting unrest during the Flour War forced the repeal of reforms and the resignation of the finance minister, hindering France's ability to generate sufficient wealth for its ambitions, particularly in the context of competing with Britain and maintaining European power, further worsening the country's debt problem. Inefficient taxation system: Another issue that burdened France’s finance was the chaotic, inefficient, and unequal taxation. Regional disparities existed, with different tax administration methods across the 36 généralités. Moreover, the third estate bore the brunt, producing wealth for the privileged estates and shouldering most taxes. The clergy and nobility were exempt, relying on tithes and land taxes from the people of the Third Estate. Corruption and tax farming diverted funds, pushing France to the brink of bankruptcy in 1786. Impacts: The financial strain placed on the Third estate, coupled with economic exploitation, heightened inequality and hardship, lay the groundwork for revolutionary fervour aimed at addressing these pressing issues. 2) Weaknesses of King Louis XVI (Political) Personality: ○ Good heart but awkward and clumsy ○ Related on a personal level with very few ○ Appeared unfeeling and gruff ○ Indecisive ○ Insecure and seemed to dislike being King of France Wife, Marie Antoinette: ○ Seemed to be ignorant of the plight experienced by the third estate. ○ Unpopular as she was Austrian ○ Wasteful, frivolous, excessive spending; bad example as she was the wife of the king ○ King Louis XVI did not manage her properly- tarnished his image Political Ineptness: ○ The widespread selling of offices, in an attempt to boost the Royal Treasury, gave the nobility too much power in governance. Hence the King did not absolutely govern France, which limited his leadership ability. ○ Poor decisions in his Finance Ministers - recalling them multiple times in many years also showed that his choice of Finance Ministers were undecisive and not well-thought through. ○ Moreover, to garner approval for his reforms, Louis XVI chose to summon the assembly of notables, comprised of leading people from the First and Second Estate, instead of the estates-general, a body that was meant to represent all 3 estates. This angered the third estate since King Louis XVI had excluded them, as the majority of the population of France, to gather approval for financial reforms and address the severe financial crisis that the country was facing. ○ When the Parlement of Paris opposed Brienne's reforms, Louis XVI impulsively exiled the Parlement, which was a very politically unwise decision. This led to people of the First and Second Estate breaking with their traditional loyalty to the crown, an assembly of the clergy even joined in to support the parlements, condemning the reforms and voting to contribute a significantly smaller cash gift to the Crown. Impacts: King Louis XVI’s weaknesses made him seem very unreliable as a King and was ignorant to the people of France, which led to a widespread build up of the people's ill feelings and anger towards him, which eventually led up to the French Revolution. 3) Growth of New Ideas (Social) American War of Independence ○ During the war, French soldiers were exposed to ideas such as a Republic, equal rights for all people, that it is right to rebel against tyranny and oppression and there should be no taxation without representation ○ The existence of the USA showed that a republic was now a plausible alternative to the Ancien regime ○ Reinforced long standing criticism of the monarchy ○ Facilitated the spread and acceptance of these new revolutionary ideas in France Discontent within French society spread and became more vocal so more people began challenging absolutism and the ancien regime. People also became more vocal about their grievances, leading to many more pamphlets published, which spread ideas about how the First and Second Estate were not needed and that the people deserved more representation. These ideas influenced many people and changed their mindset on how they saw that the King was supposed to have absolute power. Nobles and even clergymen also began to question the absolute rule of the King as they feared that the King would introduce tax reforms, eroding their political and economic interests. Hence, they wanted to take more political power away from the King to ensure reforms did not happen. Impacts: Due to the growth of new ideas, the idea of the importance of a King became slowly diminished and more people were challenging the traditional absolutism and the ancien regime. These ideas together with the incompetence of King Louis XVI made the people of France have the courage to rise up and revolt against the King and change the ancien regime, hence starting the french revolution. Trigger factors 1) Bad harvests and Economic Crisis (Economic) The poor state of French agriculture in the 1780s, exacerbated by several bad harvests, played a critical role in triggering the French Revolution. The population of France had grown significantly, from 20 million in 1700 to nearly 28 million by the 1780s, while agricultural productivity failed to keep pace. This resulted in food shortages and a steep rise in bread prices, which consumed a significant portion of the poor's income. The situation worsened in the 1780s due to a series of natural disasters, including heavy rains, severe droughts, and a volcanic eruption in 1783. The winter of 1788-89 was particularly harsh, with freezing temperatures that destroyed crops, killed livestock, and froze rivers, making mills and machinery inoperable. The subsequent thaw caused flooding, further damaging farmland and food supplies. By early 1789, the economic crisis had deepened. Food shortages were severe, especially in cities like Paris, where bread prices skyrocketed, leading to widespread hunger and rising unemployment. The economic distress fueled public anger towards the ruling classes, who were blamed for hoarding and speculation. This unrest led to food riots and disturbances, and forced King Louis XVI to reappoint the popular Jacques Necker as Minister of Finance in 1788, a move that encouraged commoners to take political action. Ultimately, these factors contributed to the king's decision to call the Estates-General in 1789. Impacts: This crisis led to widespread unrest, food riots, and growing anger towards the ruling classes, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of the French Revolution. 2) Mistakes made by leadership (Political) In the spring of 1789, as despair gripped the cities and towns of France, the royal court at Versailles remained oblivious in its extravagance. The inability of King Louis XVI and his nobles to address the crises fueled resentment among the people in the Third estate. The unpopularity and resentment towards Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette heightened. Desperate, Louis XVI agreed to call the Estates-General, a representative assembly of all three estates, only summoned in times of national crisis. However, Louis XVI's mistakes escalated the situation. He failed to take control of the chaotic Estates-General in May 1789, leading to frustrations, especially regarding voting methods. Thus, the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, prompting a chain of events beyond the government's control. Louis XVI's ignorance of the National Assembly's demands, attempts to deny their requests, and clumsy handling during the Royal Session heightened tensions. The Tennis Court Oath on June 20, 1789, symbolized the Assembly's determination to persist until a constitution limiting the king's powers was established. Louis XVI's leadership appeared weak as he backed down on decisions and attempted to use force against the National Assembly. The dismissal of the popular Minister of Finance, Necker, further fueled the revolution, culminating in the Storming of the Bastille. Louis XVI lost control over France as the revolution spread from Paris to the provinces and the countryside. Impacts: The king's mistakes and inability to address the escalating crisis played a pivotal role in triggering the full-fledged revolution. CHAPTER 2: THE CHINESE REVOLUTION The following is adapted from “China, A Modern History” by Michael Dillon. 1) Long-term factor: Autocracy and the Middle Kingdom Mentality From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, centralised authority under the emperor perpetuated a tradition of absolute rule, often leading to resistance against reforms and modernization efforts. The belief in China’s superiority as the “Middle Kingdom” further reinforced the reluctance to deviate from traditional norms and embrace foreign ideas. This mentality, rooted in the perception of Chinese culture as superior, fostered a sense of continuity and stability but also hindered adaptation to external challenges. Despite occasional periods of contact and conflict with frontier peoples, such as the nomadic tribes of the steppe, the Chinese elite maintained a belief in their cultural superiority. Consequently, the collapse of one dynasty and the rise of another were typically marked by struggles for legitimacy and the assertion of the “mandate of heaven,” highlighting the deep-seated autocracy and the Middle Kingdom mindset that shaped Chinese political and social dynamics. 2) Long-term factor: Han vs Manchu divide Following the collapse of the Ming dynasty in 1644, the Manchu conquest of China was marked by prolonged and bloody conflict, often accompanied by brutalities and massacres that left a lasting imprint on the collective memory of the Han Chinese population. The Qing rulers faced the challenge of integrating their distinct Manchu culture and identity with the existing Confucian-based Han Chinese society. Despite the Manchus’ efforts to emulate Chinese governance and culture, including adopting the Chinese language and customs, tensions persisted between the two ethnic groups. Han Chinese literati(literate elite) often viewed the Manchus as foreign invaders and resented their dominance in government positions and social hierarchy. The Qing rulers’ attempts to balance their Manchu heritage with the expectations of the Han Chinese elite led to complex cultural dynamics, with the Manchus simultaneously adopting and influencing Chinese cultural practices while preserving their own identity. This Han vs Manchu divide was not only ethnic but also cultural and political, contributing to periodic social unrest and rebellions throughout the Qing dynasty’s rule. Additionally, the eventual decline of the Qing dynasty in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was partly fueled by the Han Chinese aspiration to overthrow Manchu rule and establish a unified Chinese republic. 3) Long-term factor: Chinese Defeat by the West in the Opium Wars The Opium Wars, fought against the British Empire in the mid-19th century, revealed the Qing government’s vulnerability and highlighted systemic weaknesses within Chinese society. The conflict stemmed from the British trade of opium into China, which resulted in widespread addiction and social disruption. Despite efforts to prohibit the opium trade, the Qing government’s inability to control smuggling and addiction exacerbated social and economic problems. The military defeats suffered by the Qing forces during the Opium Wars exposed the technological and organisational shortcomings of the Chinese military. The Qing dynasty, which had long viewed itself as the preeminent power in East Asia, was humiliated by the superior firepower and tactics of the British forces. The Treaty of Nanjing, signed in 1842 after the First Opium War, forced China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open several ports to foreign trade, and pay indemnities. These unequal treaties undermined Chinese sovereignty and further weakened the authority of the Qing government. Moreover, the Opium Wars catalysed internal dissent and reform movements within China. The humiliating defeats sparked debates among Chinese intellectuals and officials about the need for modernization and strengthening of the military. Reformers such as Lin Zexu advocated for drastic measures to address the opium crisis and modernise China’s economy and military. However, conservative elements within the Qing court resisted these reforms, exacerbating internal divisions and weakening the central government’s ability to respond effectively to external threats. Overall, China’s defeat in the Opium Wars underscored the urgent need for reform and modernization, while also exposing deep-seated structural weaknesses within the Qing dynasty. The legacy of the Opium Wars contributed to growing anti-Qing sentiment and paved the way for further challenges to imperial rule in the ensuing decades. Side Note: Taiping Revolution The Taiping Rebellion was a massive civil war in China from 1850 to 1864 led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ. The rebellion aimed to overthrow the ruling Qing Dynasty and establish the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which promised social reform and equality. The conflict was marked by intense fighting, with millions of casualties, and widespread destruction. Despite initial successes, internal divisions and external pressures led to the eventual defeat of the Taiping forces by Qing loyalists and foreign powers. The rebellion left a lasting impact on Chinese society and politics, contributing to the weakening of the Qing Dynasty and paving the way for future upheavals. 4) Short-term factor: The Sino-Japanese War and the Failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement The Sino-Japanese War, sparked by tensions over Korea and exacerbated by Western encroachment on Chinese territory, revealed the extent of China’s military and technological weaknesses despite efforts at modernization. The Tongzhi Restoration, which followed the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor, aimed to address China’s vulnerabilities by implementing reforms to strengthen the military and adopt Western technology. However, the self-strengthening movement faced significant challenges, including resistance from conservative elements within the Qing court and the broader Chinese society. Despite the establishment of arsenals, shipyards, and military academies under the leadership of figures like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, the reforms fell short of achieving their intended objectives. The outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War exposed the inadequacies of China’s military modernization efforts. Despite initial victories in battles such as P’yöngyang, the Chinese forces were ultimately overwhelmed by the more modern and organised Japanese military (During the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese ruling elites were united in their desire to learn from the West to completely modernise their government, society and culture) The defeat of the Beiyang Fleet and the loss of territory to Japan highlighted China’s inability to defend its sovereignty and protect its interests in East Asia. Moreover, the Sino-Japanese War underscored the geopolitical shifts occurring in the region, with Japan emerging as a rising power and China facing continued humiliation and territorial concessions. The Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed in 1895, forced China to cede Taiwan to Japan, recognize Korean independence, and pay a significant indemnity. This treaty further weakened the Qing dynasty’s authority and intensified internal discontent among the Chinese populace. The failure of the self-strengthening movement and the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War highlighted the urgent need for more comprehensive reforms and modernization efforts in China. These events ultimately contributed to the downfall of the Qing dynasty and set the stage for the tumultuous period of revolution and upheaval in the early 20th century. 5) Short-term factor: Failure of the 100 Days Reform The failure of the Hundred Days Reform represents a significant setback for the Qing dynasty’s efforts at modernization and reform. Initiated by the Guangxu Emperor in 1898, this brief period of intense reformist activity aimed to address China’s internal weaknesses and confront the challenges posed by Western imperialism and Japanese aggression. Led by progressive figures such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, the reformers proposed a wide-ranging agenda of political, social, and economic reforms. These included the restructuring of the government, the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the modernization of the military and education systems, and the promotion of agricultural and industrial development. The reformers sought to emulate the successful modernization efforts of Japan and other Western nations while preserving China’s cultural heritage. However, the ambitious reform agenda faced fierce opposition from conservative elements within the Qing court, particularly the Empress Dowager Cixi. Concerned about the potential loss of power and prestige, Cixi and her supporters moved swiftly to undermine the reform movement. They rallied traditionalist officials and military commanders to their cause, portraying the reforms as a threat to Confucian values and the stability of the dynasty. In a decisive move, Cixi orchestrated a coup d’état, placing the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest and effectively ending the Hundred Days Reform. Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, and other reform-minded intellectuals were forced to flee into exile, while some, like Tan Sitong, faced execution for their involvement in the movement. The failure of the Hundred Days Reform highlighted the deep-seated resistance to change within the Qing court and the broader Chinese society. Despite the initial enthusiasm for reform and the Emperor’s support, the entrenched interests of the conservative elite proved insurmountable. Cixi’s return to power marked a return to the status quo ante, with the Qing dynasty continuing to struggle against internal unrest, foreign encroachments, and the growing demands for modernization and political change. 6) Short-term factor: Rise of Revolutionary National Movements led by Sun Yat Sen and the Tong Meng Hui Sun Yat-sen’s revolutionary ideas were deeply influenced by his experiences and observations of the political, social, and economic conditions in late Qing China. As a native of Guangdong province and someone who had spent time abroad in Hawaii and Hong Kong, Sun had a unique perspective on the challenges facing China and the potential paths to reform. One of Sun’s key beliefs was that meaningful change in China could only be achieved through radical action, including the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of a republican form of government. He was disillusioned with the repeated failures of reformist efforts within the Qing system and concluded that the ruling elite were incapable of enacting the necessary reforms to modernise China. Sun’s vision of a new China was rooted in the principles of nationalism, democracy, and socialism. He advocated for the creation of a modern nation-state based on the idea of the “Three Principles of the People” (San Min Chu Yi): nationalism to unite the Chinese people against foreign domination, democracy to ensure the participation of the people in governance, and socialism to address economic inequality and improve the welfare of the population. Central to Sun’s revolutionary ideas was the need for armed insurrection to overthrow the Qing dynasty and establish a republican government. He founded the Revive China Society (Xing Zhong Hui) in 1894 and sought to organise a revolutionary army capable of challenging Qing authority. Despite the failure of his initial uprising in 1895, Sun remained committed to his revolutionary cause and continued to work towards the overthrow of the imperial regime. Sun Yat-sen’s ideas resonated with many Chinese who were disillusioned with the Qing government’s inability to address the country’s internal problems and defend against foreign encroachments, which led to the formation of the Tongmenghui (Chinese Revolutionary Alliances), where he combined revolutionary groups. His advocacy for revolutionary change inspired a new generation of political activists and played a pivotal role in the eventual overthrow of the Qing dynasty in the 1911 Revolution, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China. 7) Short-term factor: The humiliation of the Qing by the West after the Boxer Uprising The Boxer Uprising, or Boxer Rebellion, was a significant event that further contributed to the humiliation of the Qing dynasty by the West. The uprising, which erupted at the turn of the 20th century, was fueled by anti-foreign sentiment and opposition to Western influence in China. The Boxers, a secret society known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists, targeted foreigners, Chinese Christians, and symbols of Western imperialism. Their actions, including attacks on foreign legations in Beijing and massacres of Chinese Christians, provoked a swift and forceful response from Western powers. The Boxer Uprising exposed the weakness of the Qing government, which was unable to control the rebellion or protect foreign nationals within its borders. The intervention of Western military forces, including troops from Europe, the United States, and Japan, further demonstrated China’s vulnerability and lack of sovereignty. The suppression of the Boxer Rebellion resulted in the imposition of harsh terms on China, including the payment of large indemnities and the expansion of foreign concessions. Overall, the Boxer Uprising deepened the sense of humiliation and powerlessness experienced by the Qing dynasty in the face of Western imperialism. It underscored the need for China to modernise and strengthen its military and political institutions to resist foreign encroachment and regain its status as a sovereign nation. Side Note: Qing’s Reforms: The reforms with modernization of China as their purpose were backed by Empress Dowager Cixi. The reforms attempted systemic reforms in government after 1901 and declared its intention to establish a constitutional monarchy. The government increased taxation to fund the reforms, and ended confucian civil service exams after 1000 years. However the implementation was very slow and minimal and a cabinet was only set up in May 1911 and consisted almost entirely of Manchu nobles. As a result, it remained unpopular among the people and was nicknamed the "Princes' Cabinet". There was also the creation of provincial assemblies but no parliament at the central level. Side Note: Cixi died on 15 November 1908, Guangxu Emperor died a day earlier. 8) Trigger factor: Railway Nationalisation and popular protest The early 20th century witnessed the construction of new railway networks as part of China’s modernization efforts, primarily undertaken by foreign firms. These railways, however, stirred public concern due to their control by foreign entities. The railways, considered the transport of the future, attracted both investors and opposition. Superstition and xenophobia stemming from the Boxer Uprising fueled some of the resistance, but deeper concerns emerged regarding foreign control over vital economic assets. In response to mounting pressure, the Qing government issued an edict in May 1911 to nationalise the main railway lines, subsequently mortgaging them to the Four Power Consortium, which included British, German, French, and American banks.. This move triggered the Railway Protection Movement, reflecting opposition to Han Chinese-owned railways being handed over to foreign powers via the Manchu government.. The movement, centred in Sichuan province, expressed mass discontent with Qing rule, galvanised anti-Qing groups and contributed to the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution. The railway nationalisation controversy thus became a focal point for popular protest, intertwining economic concerns with broader anti-foreign sentiment. Furthermore, the mobilisation of imperial troops from neighbouring Hubei Province to suppress the Railway Protection Movement created the opportunity for revolutionaries in Wuhan to launch the Wuchang Uprising, which triggered the revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. 9) Trigger factor: Mutiny at Wuchang The Mutiny at Wuchang marked a pivotal moment in the lead-up to the 1911 Revolution in China. Wuchang, situated on the east bank of the Yangzi River and part of the burgeoning industrial city of Wuhan, was a crucial hub for revolutionary activity. Revolutionary groups, fueled by nationalist and anti-Manchu sentiments, had been actively disseminating propaganda among the military since as early as 1904. Two prominent radical organisations, the Literary Association and the Society for Mutual Progress, played significant roles in mobilising soldiers of the New Army, which was stationed in Wuchang for the security of Hubei province. By July 1911, the Literary Association claimed a membership of 5,000, with a substantial portion of the New Army soldiers affiliated with the organisation. As tensions escalated, the government’s decision to deploy New Army troops from Wuchang to Sichuan in September 1911 further inflamed the revolutionaries. Concerned that the troop deployment would weaken their influence, the revolutionaries hastily organised an uprising initially scheduled for 6 October, coinciding with the Mid-Autumn Festival. However, the plans were postponed to 16 October due to perceived lack of preparation. On the morning of 9 October, a premature explosion during bomb-making activities in Hankou exposed the revolutionaries, leading to police raids and arrests. The situation escalated on 10 October when mutineers from the 8th Engineering Battalion of the New Army attacked their officers upon the discovery of the insurrection plans. The uprising quickly gained momentum, with revolutionaries seizing control of Wuchang and establishing an independent government. The success of the revolutionaries caught many by surprise, leaving them without a clear leader initially. Li Yuanhong, a senior officer in the New Army, reluctantly assumed leadership under pressure from his own troops. The establishment of a military government and the expulsion of Manchu authorities marked the effective secession of Wuhan from Qing rule. The revolt in Wuhan ignited a chain reaction across China, with cities and provinces declaring independence from Qing control. By the end of 1911, most provincial authorities considered themselves part of a Chinese Republic, signalling the collapse of Qing rule. 10) Trigger factor: Yuan Shikai’s betrayal of the Qing Yuan Shikai was a powerful military general who played a crucial role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion and later in negotiating with foreign powers to secure favourable terms for China. However, as dissatisfaction with the Qing government grew and revolution spread, Yuan began to see opportunities to advance his own political career. In 1911, when the Wuchang Uprising triggered a wave of revolutionary movements across China, Yuan initially remained loyal to the Qing court. However, as the situation deteriorated and it became apparent that the Qing government was losing control, Yuan started to negotiate with both the imperial court and revolutionary leaders. Yuan’s decision to declare his support for the Republic on February 13, 1912, marked a significant turning point. By abandoning the Qing and aligning himself with the republicans, Yuan positioned himself as a key figure in the transition to a new political order in China. Despite his initial support for the Republic, Yuan’s actions soon revealed his true intentions. Once in power, he consolidated his authority and marginalised other political factions. He dissolved the National Assembly and effectively sidelined Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionary leaders. CHAPTER 3: How did British Colonial Rule shape Malaya? Inquiry Focus: To what extent was British colonial rule in Malaya beneficial? Impacts of British Colonial Rule Political: 1) Hugh Low’s reforms established the Perak State Council comprising the Sultan and the Resident as well as Malay, Chinese and British representatives, which discussed all matters relating to the state’s development Settled the state’s debt of 800,000 Straits dollars in six years so by 1889, Malaya had an annual revenue of over $2 million and a surplus balance Established Courts of Justice that were formed with European Magistrates who were assisted by Malay magistrates Divided Perak into districts and each district was subdivided into villages with their own headmen who kept peace, settled minor disputes, reported accidents and helped to collect taxes on land and other revenue Resident collected taxes and gave sultan and chiefs due compensation Passed laws to regulate land use and register land titles Influence Chinese miners to use better modern tin mining equipment developed by the British> tin mining industry flourished Took gradual steps to abolish debt slavery Impacts: Mostly positive impact as the reforms increased the state’s revenue and restored peace and order. 2) Establishment of the Federated Malay States 1n, 1896, the Federated Malay States(FMS) was formed, bringing together the four states of Perak and Selangor, which were prosperous states as they were important tin-mining states, as well as Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, which were states with some financial difficulties, Residents had to report to the Resident-General (first appointed one was Frank Swettenham) FMS introduced a federal scheme that allowed poorer states to grow by tapping a common treasury to help them FMS supposed to limit the Residents’ power in individual states and empower the Sultans, yet, Sultans felt less involved in the administration of their states Power became centralised in the federal government and Resident-General Malay Sultans and chiefs left to look after matters that only concerned Malay customs and religion Impacts: Overall negative as the establishment of FMS did not achieve its purpose of curbing the power of Residents and empowering the Sultans and did the complete opposite, even though it did help to increase the revenue of poorer states in Malaya. 3) Consolidation of British Control in the Unfederated Malay States British advisor implemented in Johor who took over the control of all state matters except for those relating to Malay customs and religion, to replace Temenggong of Johor as the ruler In 1909, British and Siam signed the Bangkok Treaty, in which Siam was to transfer all its rights in the Northern Malay states to the British and in turn, British would take on the debts of those states and give Siam a four-million pound loan to construct railways With Johor, they formed the Unfederated Malay States (UFMS) where British advisors were appointed to the Sultans Impacts: Overall negative as the British only established the UFMS for themselves as they were worried they would have to compete with other European colonial powers, so this decision was not made with the good of the locals in mind. Economic: 1) Development of Tin and Rubber industries European businessmen owned large tin-mining companies and could purchase the most modern and sophisticated tin-mining equipment, such as tin dredges, which could greatly increase the production of tin The political stability and high standards of the FMS allowed for them to get a hold of such equipment Chinese labour provided the manpower to get the tin industry going, and some of these Chinese were able to earn a lot of money At the turn of the century, FMS became the world’s largest producer of tin (tin exports rose from 26000 tons to 70000tons from 1889 to 1929) Most of the profits were paid out to investors and shareholders Like the tin industry, the rubber industry was funded by rich European businessmen, who invested in large plantation estates , and introduced more modern production methods Rubber tapping was usually carried out by Indian labourers Indian smallholders (who owned small rubber plantations) could reap a share of profits By the early 20th century, rubber became Malaya’s most profitable export over tin Tin and rubber industries became an important part of the economy in the FMS (total revenue collected from both industries increased from 9 million to 21 million Straits dollars from 1896 to 1902) Impacts: Positive as the development of these industries helped to boost Malaya’s economy and allowed for the labourers who worked in these industries to earn more money as well, bettering their livelihoods. 2) Creation of an export-orientated economy The Malayan economy changed from a subsistence-based economy to an export-oriented one Under British rule, Malaya’s economy became largely export-oriented, supplying cash crops and raw materials to other parts of the world such as tin, rubber, pepper, sugar cane, tea, coffee and tobacco The British government leased out land cheaply for cultivation and European investors funded the plantations People’s wages were linked to the prices of goods exported which could rise and fall according to the world’s demand Impacts: Overall positive as the industries were booming with success so the labourers could earn more than they would if they still had a subsistence-based economy 3) Development of Infrastructure To connect tin mines and rubber plantations, infrastructure such as roads, bridges and railways were built The formation of the FMS allowed for better coordination of railway lines By 1896, there were 4 railway lines in operation that supported the tin and rubber industries Created job opportunities so more people came over from the countryside to towns looking for employment, leading to the rapid growth of towns Impacts: Extremely positive, as it not only supported the tin and rubber industries, it also helped to create job opportunities for more people which at the same time, helped with the development of towns. 4) Standardisation of currencies Before the late 19th century, different types of currencies were used in Malaya such as the Spanish dollars used with local coins in the Straits settlements, or private banks who issued their own notes In order to reduce the confusion of these currencies when used for trade, the British established a Currency Board to standardise and regulate the currencies in 1899 Only the Currency Board were allowed to issue notes, which were the Straits dollars notes The Straits dollar was made the only legal currency in the Straits settlements and was also adopted in other Malay states controlled by the British This made trade easier and resulted in more foreign investment in the tin mines and rubber plantations Impacts: Overall positive, although the locals might have struggled with the transition between using the old currencies to the new ones, the standardised currency helped to increase trade and boost the economy. Social: 1) Creation of a Plural Society The beginnings of a plural society were laid down when female immigrants were allowed, and migrants began forming families in Malaya The early Chinese immigrants brought with them secret societies Some Chinese became prominent businessmen such as Yap Ah Loy Chinese immigrants also worked as suitable positions such as middlemen at ports and retailers of commercial goods as they had extensive knowledge and networks for trade in the region In cities such as Melaka, Ipoh and Penang, many Chinese set up their own businesses, including transportation firms, pawn shops and entertainment centres, and these economic activities helped some Chinese to become wealthy. Indian immigrants. who came to Malaya in hope of improving their economic situation and returning to their homeland one day. came as indentured labourers to work on plantations Indians who lived in towns and cities were educated in English and took up jobs in different professions Indian businessmen formed partnerships with the Chinese and were prominent in the Indian community, by contributing to help other migrants Indian and Hindu associations were formed in the late 1890s to bring about greater cohesion and represent their interest to the colonial government Migrants from the Indonesian archipelago shared similar beliefs with the local Malays and integrated easily with locals They set up villages and engaged in agricultural activities Impacts: Negative, the creation of this plural society with people of many differences, lay the foundation for future conflicts fuelled by racism or discrimination. 2) Improving Healthcare British officials brought with them knowledge of Western medicine, and wealth from the tin-mining and rubber industries funded research into diseases like Malaria and beri-beri Sanitary Boards were set up in the late 19th century to improve health conditions, by laying down regulations regarding drainage, cleanliness of food,the design of building ventilation and the disposal of waste Hospitals were built in towns to support existing hospitals established by charitable or missionary organisations However, health conditions in the northern and eastern parts of peninsula remained in poor condition Impacts: Mostly positive impact as the health conditions of those who stayed in towns were improved greatly, however, many locals who lived in the northern and eastern parts of peninsula were not cared for and continued suffering from common diseases. 3) Education and Emergence of Western Educated Elites English schools were set up so that there would be a group of English-educated locals who meet the demand for English speaking clerks in the British administration. Western education only available to the wealthy or the aristocrats English-medium schools provided opportunities for childrens of different races to intermingle Young people of all ethnicities could take on high-paying professions that required English speakers Students of English-medium school had chances to go beyond primary education and even study overseas, so they had ideas and aspirations bigger than their peers who did not go abroad British made little effort to provide education for the common people so their education was often left to the goodwill of charitable groups Other language educated schools such as Tamil and Chinese- medium schools had to be set up by charitable groups and lacked funding from the British Although the British provided free and compulsory education for the Malays, they did not offer anything to go beyond the primary education level, which did not prepare the Malays for life in the modern society Impacts: Overall negative. Although the British did make an attempt to provide some form of education, they only provided the best for the wealthy and aristocrats which helped their children to gain even more opportunities for high paying jobs, while the common people were ignored, and had to rely on the goodwill of others to gain some form of education. The cultural imposition and social division caused by the Western education system created long-lasting disparities and tensions within Malayan society. Conclusion: - The political situation in Malaya stabilised. Peace and order was restored. - The British created a system of indirect rule and sought to preserve Malay society and traditions while allowing mass Chinese and Indian migration to exploit local resources such as tin and work in rubber and other cash crop plantations. - The Malayan economy was essentially ‘modernised’. It was transformed from a subsistence economy to an export-oriented economy - Resulted the creation of a plural society which would eventually lay the foundations for future conflicts. - The economy might have improved under colonial rule but revenue did not go towards the betterment of the colonised territory. - Colonial rule had often caused irreconcilable rifts in society between those who work for the colonial masters and those who did not. The Europeans often discriminated against the indigenous people. - Education eventually served as the basis for nationalist movements in respective countries. Created a foundation of educated individuals who were able to lead the people (intelligentsia). - At the end of the day, any benefits the locals gained as a result of colonial rule was incidental. The primary purpose behind colonial rule was to achieve the Europeans’ economic interests! CHAPTER 4: How did French Colonial Rule shape Vietnam? Inquiry Focus: To what extent was French colonial rule in Vietnam beneficial? Impacts of French Colonial Rule Political: 1) Political Transformation Vietnam was divided into 3 administrative regions and ruled separately Cochin_China remained under direct rule as a French colony Annam and Tonkin were made French protectorates and came under indirect rule with local administrations staffed by Vietnamese mandarins who were supervised by French officials Vietnamese emperor lost most of their power to the French Resident-Superior, a Resident in charge of all other French Residents, and was merely a figurehead French Governor was appointed as head of administration French institutions and laws were implemented so Vietnamese were subjected to these laws without any regard for differences in culture Vietnamese commoners who were loyal to the French replaced the Mandarin officials Impacts: More positive. Decentralising the government allowed for a fragmentation of authority, reducing the possibility of one individual having too much power such as the Emperor. The Emperor no longer has an absolute say over matters, and the country is ruled by commoners instead of the Mandarin ruling class. The French governor can observe the happenings of the country and can make fairer and unbiased decisions that are best for Vietnam. Economic: 1) Development of a Modern Currency Vietnam’s traditional zinc-copper currency system was replaced with a silver-based currency to facilitate international trade and investments In the 1880s and 1890s, the Vietnamese silver-based piastre coins and notes were issued throughout Vietnam Provided a common and stable currency that benefitted traders, foreign investors and the colonial government Created hardship for poorer Vietnamese as they often did not have enough excess produce to sell for cash, which was needed to pay for their taxes, goods and services in the new economy Impacts: Negative. The switch to a single silver currency was a decision made without the good of the locals in mind, as it only brought in more trade and revenue for the French but caused even more financial problems for the poor Vietnamese locals who were just getting by. 2) Development of Extractive Industries By 1930, Vietnam became the largest producer of coal in Southeast Asia Vietnam’s rich deposits of coal, tin and zinc were raw materials that could be used to manufacture industrial products Recruited mostly poor Vietnamese peasants to work as cheap coolie labourers, who were lowly paid and worked in harsh working conditions Impacts: Generally negative. While the development of extractive industries brought significant growth to Vietnam as it became a crucial source of raw materials in the region, this economic progress benefited only the French and the small class of wealthy Vietnamese. Majority of the labourers had to work tirelessly under the French just to be underpaid and treated harshly. 3) Development of Agricultural Sector Under French rule, cultivation of rice and other cash crops were massively expanded Rice became an export crop to meet the rising demand of a growing population in Southeast Asia Scale of rice production increased ten-fold as rice exports became the main source of income for Vietnam’s economy Large French companies established rubber plantations in Cochin-China where the highlands offered ideal conditions for growing rubber trees Rice being grown as an export crop tied the colony’s economy to external markets so the wages of rice farmers were dependent on the rise or fall of the global demand for rice Growing rice was risky as an entire crop could easily fail due to pests, disease or poor weather Despite this, the French kept pushing for rice as an export crop even when there were shortages of food for many Vietnamese peasants The French introduced irrigation programmes and developed a large network of canals in order to boost production of rice Land offered as private concessions to French companies for cultivation and declaring some large plots of land as public domain Landowners benefited from the growth of rice exports and its profits while the Vietnamese peasants became poorer Impacts: Generally negative. Although Vietnam’s economy improved due to the development of the agricultural sector, when the global demand for rice fell, the peasants suffered significant losses in their income. Yet, even when the demand for rice rose, most of the profits went to the government and the landowners, leaving just enough for these vietnamese farmers to sustain themselves. 4) Land ownership Much of the land that used to belong to an entire village and was distributed to families for cultivation now became private property of individuals Introducing private property accelerate land alienation(loss of land by a person or community through transfer or change in ownership) Peasants had to now rent the land as tenants if they wanted to continue cultivating it although the rent was high When they had no money to afford rent, many turned to borrowing from landlords or moneylenders at high interest rates of about 40 percent of the price of crops Many peasants fell into debt as they could not repay these increasing loans Crop failure was also common in northern vietnam due to poorly maintained irrigation systems so frequent flooding destroyed crops Vietnamese peasants often only grew enough crops to feed their families and to pay rent, leaving none for sale so they had no money to repay their loans, resulting in many vietnamese farmers struggling with overflowing debts Impacts: Extremely negative. The introduction of land ownership had forced many Vietnamese peasants out of the fields unless they paid rent, although their cultivation of crops was their source of income. The high rent and common crop failure left many vietnamese peasants to struggle affording the rent, so they were left no choice but to borrow money, where they had to pay back the loans with high interest rates, significantly cutting down their profits. As they incur more debt, and struggle to pay them back while sustaining their families, they overwork themselves in harsh working conditions and suffer tremendously. 5) Development of Infrastructure Under Doumer’s administration, the French built infrastructure such as roads, railways and electric lights to support the transportation of goods from factories The railways, introduced in the 1880s, reduced travelling and transportation time between cities and facilitated trade (Like the railway linking Tonkin to Yunan which helped the French gain access to trade in China and gain more trade opportunities) Infrastructure developments took place in mostly urban centres while rural areas remained underdeveloped, so majority of the locals in rural areas continued to live in undeveloped villages with no access to road, rail or modern communications The Vietnamese peasants were heavily taxed to fund the costly infrastructure and some were drafted into construction work for these infrastructures for long periods of time with little to no pay Some were even taken out of their farming jobs to fulfil these duties and could not continue supporting their family The peasants also had to feed themselves with whatever meagre resources they had Impacts: Overall negative. Although the development of new infrastructure helped to modernise Vietnam and contributed to its economic transformation by facilitating more trade and bringing in foreign investors, these were targeted to help the French gain wealth. The local peasants, on the other hand, were made even poorer as they were heavily taxed to fund the building of these new infrastructures, although many had no access to them at all. Moreover, without pay and food provided, many of them were forced by the French to be labourers and work for the construction of the infrastructure, leaving them with no way to fend for their families and themselves 6) French Monopoly of Economy and Colonial Taxes The French established state monopolies on opium, alcohol and salt which were items used extensively by the locals The colonial government set high taxes and prices on these items, which helped to increase the revenue of these products, however, it came at the expense of the vietnamese peasants who had to pay high prices for materials and ingredients which they commonly used Vietnam was also seen as a protected market for French products as it was an exclusive source of raw materials for the French so to discourage trade between Vietnam and its traditional trading partner, China, the colonial government set high taxes on imports from other countries besides France This meant that the vietnamese had no choice but to purchase French products, displacing local artisans and craftsmen Impacts: Mostly negative. The implementation of these monopolies and colonial taxes were a one-sided development to help the French earn even more revenue and profits, while the locals suffered even more losses as prices of commodities they extensively used rose, leaving them even poorer. The discouragement of trade between Vietnam and China also resulted in these peasants not being able to get Chinese products which they used to have, and left them no choice but to purchase unfamiliar products from France to make do, which led to a decline in the income of those local artisans and craftsmen. Social: 1) Migration and Urbanisation The French pushed for the Vietnamese’ internal migration to the southern provinces to work on the newly developed plantations This addressed the issue of worker shortage in Cochin-China and provided a cheap source of labour It also relieved pressure on the more densely populated northern provinces Urbanisation, due to French investment of infrastructure, made established indigenous towns like Hanoi become major cities Urban centres bustled with foreign trade and commerce, whilst acting as educational centres and cultural meeting places Many vietnamese peasants moved from rural areas to the cities for employment opportunities and to escape the undeveloped countryside Impacts: Extremely positive. Internal migration of the Vietnamese people provided many peasants with job opportunities as farmers or labourers, reducing the heavy workload of the existing peasants working in Cochin-China, as well as ensuring other provinces were not overpopulated. Urbanisation helped modernise towns into cities, bringing in more investment and revenue, as well as providing better living conditions for the people living there with more amenities. 2) Improving Standards of Living Vietnamese peasants experienced deteriorating standards of living as their source of food and income were unstable, varying with the fluctuating prices of goods in the market, so they could no longer rely on subsistence to keep their family afloat In contrast, the French companies and Vietnamese who supported the French became extremely wealthy from the new policies of the colonial government Plantation estates brought in huge profits Vietnamese peasants suffered from the harsh working conditions of long hours and inadequate food, medical care and housing, so diseases like Malaria and malnutrition were often widespread High taxes and state monopolies caused further financial strain The society had an uneven wealth distribution Impacts: Negative. The French rule caused suffering for the Vietnamese peasants as they did anything to maximise their own profits, even if it meant making the peasants even poorer and deteriorating their standards of living by mistreating the workers. This also led to an even wider gap between the common Vietnamese people and the wealthy elites who worked with the French, leading to discontentment of the Vietnamese peasants to the French colonial government. 3) Public Health The French built a medical system to provide public healthcare in Vietnam They constructed two major hospitals, the De Lanessan in Hanoi and the Grall in Saigon as well as institutes for researching on diseases However, economic interests and needs of the French took priority There were only a small group of trained medical staff in the hospitals for Vietnam’s population of 23 million people They legalised opium to ensure a source of income for its government budget, which caused deterioration in the health of the people as many Vietnamese were addicted to opium Impacts: Somewhat positive. The French made efforts to improve the public healthcare system of the Vietnamese which improved the health of the people. However, the colonial government put their own economic interests first, resulting in insufficient healthcare for the Vietnamese people, as well as, putting the Vietnamese people’s health at risk by legalising the sale of opium just to strengthen their source of income. 4) Education The French replaced the traditional Vietnamese script with a romanised script created by a missionary It was taught in schools and the ability to read and write the romanised script became a criterion for joining the civil service The romanised script opened the door to print publications so many independent newspapers also began to emerge such as Lao Dong and Gia Dinh Bao The French limited vernacular schools and revamped the Vietnamese style of schooling, developed along Confucian lines, into French-style education French was the main medium used in secondary schools and French culture and geography was also mainly taught, resulting in students learning more about the French than their own culture and language The Vietnamese elites who were enrolled into these schools adapted speaking French and gained more employment opportunities than their common Vietnamese peers as they could understand the language well Most of the Vietnamese did not receive formal education and took up labour-intensive jobs, as there were insufficient schools for children and no effort made by the French government to provide education for children of lower classes By the end of French rule, about 80 percent of the Vietnamese population was illiterate Impacts: Negative. The French colonial government had only established education for people of upper classes and provided no sort of formal education for the Vietnamese peasants, leading to an increasingly widening gap between the rich and the poor in Vietnam. The elites had better education so they naturally gained more employment opportunities, becoming even wealthier. Their education was also heavily based on French culture which led to the deterioration of their knowledge on Vietnamese culture. Chapter 5: Why did Stalin rise to power? Inquiry Focus: To what extent were Stalin’s abilities the main reason for his rise to Power? Factors for Stalin’s rise to power 1) Last Testament of Lenin before his death not disclosed Soviet leaders often considered certain documents, especially those critical of leadership or policy, as potentially harmful to the image and stability of the Soviet state. Lenin had criticised all of the Politburo’s members in his last testament, which if it was released to the public, would bring a bad image to all the members of the Politburo (except Trosky) They did not want the public to recognise the members’ weakness and support Trotsky Allows Stalin to keep his position of general secretary, prevented Trotsky from becoming the leader of Soviet Union Impacts: The non-disclosure of Lenin's will was the turning point that Stalin was able to exploit and use in his favour to make himself appear more competent and allowed him to keep his position as General Secretary and therefore, maintain a chance in the election as a candidate. By keeping his position, allowed him great patronage which led to growing loyalty to Stalin within the party and rise to power. 2) Trotsky’s mistakes and weaknesses He was aloof, arrogant and showed disdain for those less clever than him He made no attempt to build a base of support He was not popular with Red Army leaders as they felt that he was neglecting their interests Did not push himself forward He attacked the growth of party bureaucracy which could be interpreted as criticism He was unpredictable and indecisive He argued against publicising Lenin’s testament and thereby reprieved Stalin He underestimated Stalin Impacts: Trotsky’s weaknesses, like his lack of support from the political party, were used against him by his political rivals, in order to take him down from being the most favoured candidate, by forming alliances with one another against Trotsky. Moreover, Trotsky being ignorant to Stalin’s power and underestimating him resulted in Stalin being able to gain power and consolidate support from others without the attention of one of the most potential candidates to succeed Lenin, Trotsky. 3) Weaknesses/ Mistakes of his other rivals Zinoviev: ○ reputation for inconsistency, switching alliances between stalin and trotsky(inconsistent, no stable power base) ○ ambitious compromiser, no clear philosophy, vain but lacked political courage(unable to garner support from masses, no clear vision) ○ buckled under political pressure ○ Mood swings ○ underestimated Stalin Bukharin: ○ naive and lacked the qualities of intrigue, making him unsuited to party in-fighting ○ made the mistake of appearing more popular in the party than stalin ○ trying to remain loyal to everyone and avoided taking sides in the factional in-fighting, he lacked a power base ○ seriously underestimated stalin so he wouldn’t go against stalin ○ made a tactical mistake in 1928 by trying to establish links with the defeated kamenev and appearing inconsistent Kamenev: ○ weakness:regarded by many as too soft, without the wish or ability to be a leader ○ seriously underestimated opponents,especially stalin ○ ineffective compared to stalin and Zinonev ○ lack of a clear goal. vision towards leadership Tomsky: ○ disliked forming alliances ○ no influence ○ failed to understand the importance of playing the political game ○ hated trotsky which blinded him to the danger of stalin ○ was trade union based so he was a target for stalin ○ his support of the New Economic Policy that was eventually used against him Impacts: Stalin’s rivals all had no dominance and were seen with the inability to lead, making Stalin seem like a better candidate to vote for. Moreover, many of Stalin’s rivals did not view Stalin as a capable man for the job and focused their attention towards Trosky, which allowed Stalin to consolidate his plans to give him more time to rise to power. 4) Stalin playing off one faction against another Stalin garnered support from Zinoviev, Kamenev and from the Right, led by Bukharin, he used the support and big power he accumulated to sway the Left, causing the left to decline. Stalin strategically used his position in the centre to sway left and right and utilise his power whenever it proved him convenient. Stalin allied himself with Zinoviev and Kamenev against Trotsky ○ this gave Stalin the upper hand as he could manoeuvre and gather support from many sides no matter the situation Impacts: His flexibility in supporting the different factions allowed him to achieve his goals without stirring up a lot of opposition. This factor sharply advantaged Stalin’s position in the party. Having the ability to manoeuvre between different factions, allowed Stalin to gain support within the party easily as he took sides beneficial to him without offending others since he was in the middle and such changes in stance were expected. 5) Stalin’s manipulation during Lenin’s funeral Control over the Funeral Commission enabled Stalin to manipulate the power struggle following Lenin's death. He dictated the funeral agenda, excluding rivals like Trotsky by providing him the wrong funeral date, and controlled symbolic imagery, creating a cult of personality around Lenin and himself. Stalin also gained control over Lenin's legacy, interpreting his ideas to serve his own interests. By managing the funeral, Stalin boosted his reputation and legitimacy, leveraging his position to rise to supreme leader of the Soviet Union. According to Stalin's secretary, Boris Bazhanov, Stalin was jubilant over Lenin's death while “publicly putting on the mask of grief Impacts: Using his position as General Secretary, Stalin began to fill the Soviet bureaucracy with loyalists. After Lenin's death, Stalin travelled across the USSR to deliver lectures on Leninist philosophy and began framing himself as Lenin's successor. All these actions helped Stalin rise in popularity as a candidate, as he was seen as the most suitable successor of Lenin, who was an extremely well respected leader in the USSR, and one who respected him the most. 6) Stalin’s position as the General Secretary Control Over Party Machinery: Stalin's position allowed him to control the appointment and promotion of party officials, ensuring that key positions were filled with his loyal supporters. This network of loyalists was crucial for his consolidation of power. Access to Information: Stalin was able to get very close to Lenin and thus, could gain access to his office where he bugged it to gain information in the 1930s. His position also enabled him to gather intelligence on his rivals, manipulate information, and stay ahead of political developments. Administrative Power: Stalin's role gave him oversight of the party's administrative functions, allowing him to control membership and expel those who opposed him. This control was essential in eliminating rivals and consolidating his authority. Manipulation of Party Procedures: Stalin adeptly used party rules and procedures to his advantage, calling congresses, plenums, and meetings to marginalise his rivals and solidify his position. Impacts: Stalin used his position as a General Secretary to gather loyal supporters that would help in the long term. He also expelled his critics to tighten his grip. Moreover, he used the intelligence he gathered to pull his opponents down with their weaknesses: keeping him a step ahead of them. Chapter 6: Why did Hitler rise to power? Inquiry Focus: To what extent were Hitler’s abilities the main reason for his rise to power? Factors for Hitler’s rise to power Long term factors: 1) Economic fragility of the Weimar Republic Ebert’s government signed an armistice to end the war in Nov 1918, earning them the term “November Criminals” for subjecting Germany to a humiliating defeat. Nationalists claimed that the German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by politicians who made peace when the army could have fought on. French Occupation of Ruhr in Jan,1923 ○ Germany failed to pay reparations under the Versailles Treaty ○ 60,000 French and Belgian soldiers entered the Ruhr and seized control of mines,factories and railways ○ Passive resistance brought German heavy industry to a standstill ○ Inflation caused the paper, Mark to be worthless Although Gustav Stresseman established the Dawes plan, to borrow from the USA to help the economy, which provided immediate economic relief, but it was heavily dependent on continued foreign investment, and was not sustainable. The Locarno Pact also improved relations with Western Europe and led to Germany's admission to the League of Nations, but was more of a short-term diplomatic success. It did not address the underlying tensions in Eastern Europe or the dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, which later contributed to the rise of extremist forces in Germany. 2) Political weaknesses of the Weimar Republic Weimar Constitution: ○ Proportional representation encouraged lots of small parties which each got a small number of MPs. Not one party could get a majority so governments had to be coalitions. There could never be a strong government. Too many parties led to political instability ○ The president was allowed to issue laws by decree when he invoked Article 48.The president had too much power. It was possible he could turn himself into a dictator. The Weimar Republic needed the support of the army to survive the attacks by the extreme revolutionary left but having the army as a support resulted in majority of the socialists unwittingly prolonging a military establishment which despised the democratic process The Spartacist uprising, Jan 1919(an attempted revolution by the Communists in Berlin against Ebert’s government) ○ Poorly planned and lacking support of other left-wing groups, ○ The uprising was easily crushed by the Freikorps (volunteer corps made up of ex-soldiers). ○ Dependence on the army and the Freikorps weakened Ebert’s government. ○ The use of force against the Communists undermined the position of the Socialist Democrats as the representatives of the working class The Kapp Putsch( an attempted coup against the German national government), Mar 1920 ○ Freikorps and other nationalist groups were unhappy with Ebert’s government for signing the Versailles treaty ○ When the government requested the Freikorps to disband, their leaders refused and marched into Berlin and declared a new government. ○ Ebert’s government could not get the support from the army and instead pleaded with the workers to start a general strike. ○ The entire of Berlin was paralysed and the Kapp Putsch collapsed The German government tried to solve post war economic problems by printing more money and inflation reached levels known as hyperinflation. ○ Exchange rate quickly collapsed ○ 8.9 marks to a US dollar had become 4200 million marks to a US $. ○ Middle class lost their savings and resented the Weimar government Overall Impacts: The Economic fragility of the Weimar Republic due to Germany signing the Treaty of Versailles, which led to them having to pay large sums of money as reparations, as well as the French Occupation of the Ruhr which brought the industries to a standstill and caused hyperinflation in Germany, made the Weimar Republic seem extremely unreliable as they could not solve simple post war economic problems. Moreover, the growing reliance of the Weimar government on the army made them appear weak. They also appeared politically unstable as they struggled making decisions with so many parties, making the people lose faith in them. In these times of chaos, Hitler promised to bring order; a feeling of unity to all and the chance to belong. He promised he would make Germany strong again; end payment of war reparations to the Allies; tear up the treaty of Versailles; stamp out corruption; keep down Marxism; and deal harshly with the Jews. All these promises of solving the problems the people were facing and ending their times of suffering, helped Hitler grow support from the masses and eventually led to his rise to power. Hitler’s Abilities: 1) Hitler’s Leadership skills Skillfulness at negotiations: ○ Hitler was a political strategist. ○ He was willing to strike deals with those who may not share similar political beliefs for personal gain. Eg. The Reichstag Election of 1932, resulted in Hitler being appointed as Chancellor of Germany. Impacts: Hitler’s charisma and personality when delivering speeches and his ability to identify with the people while doing so, filled many of them with a sense of hope that Hitler could be just what Germany needs to rise back up as a powerful nation, so his popularity grew, which would be crucial for his rise to power. 2) Nazi Promises and Propaganda The Nazis said what people wanted to hear. They made sure that their promises were flexible and contained something for everyone. This explains why they were so well supported. The Nazis concentrated on issues that the German people were worried about. They promised to: ○ solve Germany's economic problems ○ provide strong leadership ○ ignore the Treaty of Versailles ○ build up the army ○ make Germany a great country again. Their promises were designed to appeal to everyone, from businessmen and farmers to factory workers and housewives. The Nazis were very flexible in what they said to the German people. If they found that a policy was unpopular they would simply drop it. Nazi propaganda was the main reason why support for the Nazis grew. It presented the Nazi Party as the solution to Germany's problems. ○ Nazi propaganda was organised by Josef Goebbels. The Nazis used the latest technology - loudspeakers, slide shows and films - to spread their message. In the 1932 election campaign they even used planes to make sure that Hitler could speak in as many places as possible. ○ The mass rallies that the Nazis held also helped to win them support. Music, lighting and marches gave the impression of discipline and order in a time of chaos. The Nazis also used powerful propaganda posters with simple slogans to spread their key ideas. Impacts: The Nazis' promises that appealed to many different classes of people, helped him to gain many more supporters as they were sure to gain something if the Nazi Party rose to power. Moreover, Nazi propaganda included making Hitler seem like the only saviour for the country, and often portrayed the Nazi party with many existing supporters. These ideas encouraged more people to back them and helped Hitler in his journey to rise in power. 3) Nazi Organisation The Nazis were very well organised. This impressed voters and helped the Nazis to campaign more effectively than their main rivals. The Nazis were able to raise money to fund their election campaigns. A lot of this money came from ordinary members. The Nazis were also able to attract huge donations from rich businessmen like Fritz Thyssen. Nazi party members worked hard in their local regions to spread the Nazi message through door-to-door leafleting and public meetings. Nazi posters could be seen everywhere. The Nazis also organised soup kitchens and shelters for the unemployed. The SA(Storm Troopers) also played an important role. These were violent times. People liked the fact that the SA were prepared to stand up to the Communists who often fought battles with the police. With their uniforms and marches the SA looked capable of bringing law and order to Germany. Impacts: From times of political instability displayed by the Weimar Republic, the Nazis' well organised political party made them seem extremely impresive as this was in stark contrast to the Weimar Republic. Moreover, they proved to be able to support themselves economically unlike the Weimar Republic who relied on the taxes of the people, hence it made people think that the Nazis could solve their economic problems with better reforms. Furthermore, with the Storm Troopers, the Nazis provided a sight of discipline in a time of chaos, the impression of energy in a time of hopelessness, and helped to win over many people, contributing to Hitler’s rise to power. Favourable Short-term Circumstances: 1) Fear of Communism From 1930 to 1932 support for the Communists increased. The German Communist Party was the largest in Europe, outside the Soviet Union. Many people in Germany feared they would take over the country. The Communists had a lot of support from the working class and close links with the Soviet Union. But German business owners and farmers feared the Communists because in the Soviet Union the Communist government had taken over big industries and farmers' land. Impacts: Many people voted for the Nazis because they were scared of the Communists getting into power. The Nazis seemed to be the only party who could stop the Communists. This helped Hitler in his rise to power as he gained support from people of the middle class, farmers and businessmen, who were all afraid of the losses they would suffer if the Communist party came to power.. 2) Weak Opposition Opposition to the Nazis was weak and divided. The Nazis' two main rivals, the Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party, were bitter enemies. They were not prepared to work together to stop Nazis. People had lost trust in the parties who had ruled Germany during the Great Depression. They did not seem to be able to do anything to solve the crisis. To make matters worse, they argued amongst themselves about what to do. They did not offer strong, effective leadership. Impacts: The weaker opposition, where the Communist party and the Social Democratic Party seemed less reliable than the Nazi party, helped to portray the Nazi party as a more favourable party to support, eventually leading to Hitler rising in support and power. 3) Political Deal with Hitler sought by the conservative German elites NAZI SUCCESS ○ In July 1932 the Nazis won 37 per cent of the vote in the elections. They were the largest party in the Reichstag. However, the Nazis did not have the majority they needed to control the Reichstag. VON PAPEN AS CHANCELLOR ○ Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor. However, Paul von Hindenburg (the President) refused. Instead, he appointed his friend, Franz von Papen (leader of the Catholic Centre Party), as Chancellor. Papen soon faced many problems. He did not have the support of the Reichstag. VON SCHLEICHER AS CHANCELLOR ○ General von Schleicher persuaded Hindenburg to remove Papen. In December, Schleicher became Chancellor. VON PAPEN'S REVENGE! ○ Papen wanted revenge. He was determined to get back into power and remove Schleicher. The Nazis were still the largest party so Papen thought he could use them to get power for himself. He met with Hitler and made a political deal. They agreed to form a new government, with Hitler as Chancellor and Papen as Vice-Chancellor. Wealthy businessmen went along with the plan because they believed that Papen, not Hitler, would control the new government. HITLER AS CHANCELLOR ○ Papen persuaded Hindenburg to agree to his plan. In January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor. Hindenburg and Papen thought that they could control Hitler. They made sure that only three out of the twelve people who made up the new government were Nazis. Impacts: Hitler became Chancellor because of a political deal with the leader of another party. Without this deal he would not have been able to become Chancellor. The political deal was an extremely crucial catalyst that brought Hitler to power. ANNEX A: SBQ SKILLS (suggested time for SBQ: 1 hr 15 mins) 1) Inference (Y1 T2) PEEL 2) Comparison (Y1 T3) 2 Similarity: 2 PEEL 2 Difference: 2 PEE 1 Similarity and 1 Difference: 2 PEE Possible points of comparison: TYPE/ORIGIN What type of source is this? (Eg: Textual, pictorial, oral interview) Is the source written by the government or written by members of the populace? CONTENT What is this source saying? (Requires you to infer) TONE What is the source’s attitude towards a topic? PURPOSE What does the source want its readers or viewers to think or do? (Year 2 onwards) 3) Message & Purpose (Y2 T1) Message: AMA: Author, Audience, Message (PEE) Purpose: AMAO: Author, Message(convince or persuade)(PEE), Audience, Outcome (must show change in action or mindset) 4) Reliability (Y2 T2) CSRPE: 5 para C: Identify the source’s CLAIM (PEE) S: CROSS-REFERENCE to other supporting sources (must be reliable) or contextual knowledge to check accuracy of the source’s content (PEE) R: CROSS-REFERENCE to other refuting sources (must be reliable) or contextual knowledge to check accuracy of the source’s content (PEE) P: Critically assess the PROVENANCE to determine how far bias could affect the source’s reliability Type: What type of source is this? Origin of source: Who produced the source? Which organisation does he/she represent? When was the event at which the source was produced? Purpose: Why was the source produced? What was the outcome the source hoped to achieve? Can you detect bias in the source? ○ One-sided viewpoint ○ Words that show bias Does the source contain generalizations or sweeping statements that may not be true? E: Evaluate the EXTENT of the source’s reliability 5) Utility (Y3 T2) Example: Steps Example Step 1: What CONTENT in the source is Source A is useful in showing that the useful/relevant to the topic of inquiry? Empress Dowager Cixi was more powerful - Check useful in content through than the Guangxu Emperor in the Qing Cross-Reference (Contextual government during the late 19th and early Knowledge, Background Information, 20th century. According to Source A, when or another source) holding court, it was Cixi who sat on the Use PEE (Point, Evidence, Explanation) to throne while Guangxu sat by her side. This explain. (E.g. Source A is useful as evidence interesting court protocol reveals how in the about…this can be supported by Source B court, Cixi was the one the officials were which shows…Thus, Source A is reliable and reporting to, instead of the Guangxu hence helpful.) Emperor. This tells me that Cixi was the most powerful in the Qing government then. Contextual knowledge tells me that the Guangxu Emperor was put on the throne at the age of 4 by Cixi and since 1875, it was Cixi who ruled on his behalf and exerted great influence and power over China until her death in 1908. Therefore, Source A is useful in illustrating the control and dominance of Cixi in the Qing government. (not necessary) Step 2: What is limited about the source? (in Source A is not useful because the relation to the topic of inquiry) information it provides is limited. When I - Is the CONTENT unreliable & cross-reference to Source B, Source A’s claim therefore not useful? that the Empress Dowager Cixi was more - Are there missing key points that are powerful than the Guangxu Emperor in the not mentioned in the source? Qing government is made more credible. - Check useful in content based on However, Source A was not able to reliability, through Cross-Reference comprehensively capture the extent of her Use PEE (Point, Evidence, Explanation) to power, which was shown in Source B. explain. (E.g. Source A is not entirely useful Beyond just occupying the central seat in the as

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