Rocks & Minerals - Lesson 3 PDF

LESSON 3: ROCKS & MINERALS Properties of Minerals: Mineral/s: Naturally occurring, solid, inorganic 1. Color: element or compound, contains a uniform - Most identifiable characteristic chemical composition, contains regularly...

LESSON 3: ROCKS & MINERALS Properties of Minerals: Mineral/s: Naturally occurring, solid, inorganic 1. Color: element or compound, contains a uniform - Most identifiable characteristic chemical composition, contains regularly but not a good diagnostic. repeating internal structure - Not a reliable property in identifying a mineral since the Naturally Occuring: presence of impunities may alter - Minerals exist naturally the color. - Steel and synthetic diamonds are made artificially therefore they are not 2. Luster: minerals. - How much the mineral can reflect light on its surface. Inorganic: Reflectivity - Limited to substances formed through inorganic processes 3. Streak: - Coal is not a mineral since it contains no - Powdered color of a mineral hydrogen & carbon - More reliable diagnostic - Color residue from scratching a Solid: mineral - All liquids and gases are hot minerals - Shows true color of a mineral - Ice formed in glaciers are considered minerals but not water 4. Specific gravity: - The ratio of the density of water Uniform composition: to the density of the mineral - Chemical composition of minerals - Specific gravity of water is 1 should express the exact chemical g/cm^3 formula with the elements and - Specific gravity of minerals compounds in a specific ratio range from 2-3 g/cm^3 (2.7 - The only exception is the atomic g/cm^3) substitution, which is a characteristic in - Used to measure a mineral’s certain minerals weight or density - Most are ionic compounds 5. Cleavage: Regularly repeating structure: - Ability of mineral to break along planes - Atoms in minerals are organized in a of weak landing regular, repetitive geometric patten or - Smooth surfaces crystal structure - Can be described in both the: - Volcanic gases are not minerals because - Number of directions of cleavage it is amorphous and has no form planes - Substances that fulfill all the - Quality (Perfect, Excellent, Good, requirements but do not have an ordered Poor, or Absent) internal structure are called Mineraloids. 6. Fracture:  - Mineral breaks and exhibits TYPES OF MINERALS: uneven surfaces - Surfaces that aren’t smooth Silicate: - Irregular pattern of breakage - Most minerals can display - Composed of primarily silicone-oxygen uneven or grainy fractures Tetrahedrons (SIO4 2-) - Conchoidal (curved, shell-like); - Oxygen and silicone are the most Hackly (rough, jagged) minerals common element on the crust - Major rock-forming minerals 7. Hardness: - Most common (90% of the crust) - Mineral’s resistance to scratching/abrasion Examples: - Measurment of the strength of 1. Feldspar chemical bonds 2. Quartz 3. Micca Moh’s scale of hardness: 4. Amphibole 5. Pyroxene 10: Diamond 6. Olivine 9: Corundum 8: Topaz Non-Silicate: 7: Quartz 6: Orthoclase - Less abundant but still have some 5: Apatite economic importance 4: Fluorite - Do not contain silicone or oxygen 3: Calcite 2: Gypsum Divided into subgroups: 1: Talc 1. Oxides 8. Chemical Reactions/Reactivity: 2. Sulfides - Mineral’s ability to react to a 3. Sulfates drop of acid (Mineral Acid test) 4. Halides - Minerals like Calcite react 5. Carbonates strongly by forming bubbles 6. Native metals 9. Magnetism: Amorphous: - Allows mineral to attract or repel magnetic materials - Irregular arrangement - Caused by iron atoms - Pseudosolids or supercooled liquids - Only magnetite is sufficiently - Mineraloids distinguishable by magnetism - Sharp Melting point - If it’s attractive, it’s magnetic Crystalline: - Regular arrangement  - True solids - Eroded sediments will run out - Ranged melting point of energy and will be laid down or deposited ROCK CYCLE: 4. Compaction and Sedimentation/Lithification: Compaction: - Deposited sediments are overburdened and compacted, reducing pore space Cementation: - Dissolved minerals in the groundwater cement the sediments, creating sedimentary rocks Rocks: - Naturally occurring; coherent aggregate 5. Metamorphism: of minerals - Pre-existing rocks → - Found in the lithosphere Metamorphic rocks - Made of two or more minerals - Rocks may be subjected to great pressure and intense heat Processes of the Rock Cycle: - Due to change in temperature and pressure, this type of rock 1. Crystalization (cooling/solidification): may undergo physical and - Magma → Igneous Rock chemical changes and be - Magma cools underground or on transformed into metamorphic the surface, and hardens into an rocks igneous rock - Rock does not melt all the way - Igneous rocks may then be - If the temperature exceeds the brought to the surface through melting point of the rocks, it uplift may undergo melting, form 2. Weathering and Erosion: magma, and the cycle begins all - Pre-existing rocks → Sediments over again. - Breakdown into smaller pieces called “sediments” TYPES OF ROCKS - Weathering: breaking down 1. Igneous rocks: - Erosion: Transportation through water, - Comes from the Latin word wind, and gravity “Ignis” which means fire. - Rocks formed from the cooling 3. Deposition: or solidification of magma or lava 2 types of Igneous rocks: a. Clastic/Detrital - Formed due to the mechanical 1. Extrusive or Volcanic: weathering of rocks - Solidifies at the surface when - Form from the lithification of erupted rocks and mineral fragments - Small crystals due to rapid or such as quartz, feldspar, and faster cooling clay - Examples are: Basalt, Tuff, - Ex: Sandstone, conglomerate, Pumice shale 2. Intrusive or Plutonic: b. Chemical - Crystalizes below the Earth’s - Formed when minerals that are surface present in the rock forms - Large crystals due to slow undergo a chemical reaction that cooling causes them to cool over time - Examples are: Diorite, Granite, before changing back to rock Pegmatite form - Ex; Limestone, rock salt 3 types of textures: c. Organic - Mainly comprises of coal and 1. Coarse-grained limestone - Grains are visible to the plain - Formed from the accumulation eye of dead plants and animals in - Example: Granite the rock layers 2. Medium-grained - Example: Dacite 3. Metamorphic rocks: 3. Fine-grained - Comes from the Greek word: - Example: Basalt Metamorphose → transform - Existing rocks that have been texturally 2. Sedimentary Rocks: and mineralogically altered when - Formed by compacted and cemented exposed to high temperature and sediments pressure Process: 3 types of Metamorphic rocks: 1. Weathering - breakdown a. Contact 2. Erosion - Transportation - When magma comes in contact 3. Deposition - Dispersion with an already existing body of rock Lithification: - Small area is affected 4. Compaction - Overburdened w pressure - Produces non-foliated rocks 5. Cementation - solidifying - Ex: Marble, quartzite, hornfels b. Regional 3 Types of Sedimentary Rocks: - Affects a much larger area  - Caused by large geologic Definition: A mechanical weathering process processes such as that occurs when water enters cracks in rocks mountain-building and freezes. - Foliated rocks Process: - Ex: Gneiss and schist - High temperature Water seeps into the cracks of rocks. c. Dynamic When temperatures drop, the water - Also due to mountain-building freezes and expands (about 9% - Huge force of heat and pressure expansion). cause the rocks to be bent, This expansion exerts pressure on the crushed, flattened, and sheared surrounding rock, causing the cracks to - Along faults widen. - Foliated As the freeze-thaw cycle repeats, the - Low temperature rock continues to break apart. 2 classifications based on texture: Impact: Creates rubble and talus slopes at the a. Foliated: base of cliffs. - Layered or landed appearance Contributes to the breakdown of rocks - Ex: Gneiss, Phylite, Schist, in cold climates. Slate Affects landscapes by creating more b. Non-foliated: surface area for further weathering. - No visible layer and patterns - Ex: Hornfels, quartzite, marble GEOLOGIC PROCESSES: b. Insolation weatheting/Thermal Exogenic: Happens on the surface and include stress: weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and sedimentation. Weathering: 1. Mechanical/Physical weathering: a. Frost wedging/frost weathering: Definition: A mechanical weathering process caused by temperature changes leading to the expansion and contraction of rocks. Process: During the day, rocks heat up and expand; at night, they cool down and contract.  Different minerals within the rock ○ Common in igneous rocks, such expand and contract at different rates, as granite, where large sheets leading to internal stress. can separate from the main Over time, this stress can cause the rock body. to crack and break apart. ○ Influences the landscape by creating features like cliffs and Impact: rounded hills. ○ Facilitates further weathering Common in environments with processes by increasing surface significant temperature fluctuations, area exposed to elements. such as deserts. Contributes to the formation of Real-World Examples: exfoliation domes where layers of rock peel away. - Frost wedging is prevalent in colder Enhances the breakdown of rocks into climates, especially in mountainous smaller particles. regions. - Insolation weathering is common in deserts, where temperature changes are extreme. c. Unloading or pressure: - Unloading can be seen in granite outcrops and mountain ranges where erosion has occurred. 2. Chemical weathering: a. Oxidation: Definition: A chemical reaction where oxygen Definition: A mechanical weathering combines with minerals, process that occurs when pressure on particularly those rocks is reduced, often due to the containing iron. removal of overlying material. Process: Iron in rocks Process: reacts with oxygen in ○ When erosion removes layers of the presence of soil or rock (like during glacial moisture, forming iron retreat), the pressure on the oxide (rust). underlying rock decreases. Impact: Weakens the ○ This reduction in pressure rock structure, alters allows the rock to expand. color (e.g., reddish ○ As the rock expands, it can hues), and can fracture and develop sheet joints accelerate further or layers that peel off. weathering. Impact: b. Hydrolysis: nitrogen oxides from industrial activities and Definition: A chemical vehicles combine with reaction where water water vapor. interacts with minerals, Impact: Accelerates causing them to break chemical weathering of down. rocks and buildings, Process: Water breaks especially those made down minerals like of limestone and feldspar into clay and marble, leading to dissolved ions. structural damage. Impact: Changes the mineral composition of e. Biological action: rocks, contributes to Definition: Weathering soil formation, and can caused by living lead to the formation of organisms. sediment. Processes: c. Carbonation: - Plant roots grow into Definition: A process cracks, exerting where carbon dioxide pressure and dissolves in water, breaking rocks forming carbonic acid. apart. Process: This weak acid reacts with minerals - Microorganisms such as calcite in , like bacteria limestone, leading to and fungi, dissolution and erosion. produce organic Impact: Contributes to acids that can cave formation and dissolve karst landscapes, and minerals. can affect buildings made of limestone. Impact: Contributes to soil formation and nutrient cycling, and d. Acid rain: enhances other weathering processes. Definition: Rainwater that has absorbed pollutants, making it more acidic. Erosion: Causes: Emissions of sulfur dioxide and  Human Activities that cause soil large areas of bare soil that are easily erosion: eroded. Impervious surfaces: Concrete, asphalt, 1. Deforestation and other surfaces don’t absorb water, What it is: The removal of trees and which increases surface runoff. This vegetation, often for timber, agriculture, excess water can carry soil from nearby or urban development. areas with poor drainage. How it causes erosion: Tree roots help bind soil together. When trees are cut 4. Mining down, the soil becomes loose, and rain or wind can easily wash or blow it away. Open-pit mining: This involves The protective canopy that reduces the removing large areas of land to extract impact of raindrops on the soil is also resources, exposing vast amounts of lost. loose soil and rock. Without vegetation, Effects: Leads to large-scale soil loss, these materials are easily washed away landslides, and reduced soil fertility. by rain or carried off by wind. This is especially problematic on slopes. Strip mining: Similar to open-pit mining, this type involves removing 2. Agriculture layers of soil and rock, which disrupts the natural landscape and increases the Tilling: The process of plowing or likelihood of erosion. turning over the soil to prepare it for planting can disturb the soil structure, 5. Poor Irrigation Practices making it more vulnerable to erosion by wind or water. Over-irrigation: Excess water can lead Monoculture: Growing the same crop to waterlogging, where the soil becomes repeatedly without rotation can deplete oversaturated. When this happens, the nutrients and reduce soil structure, soil structure weakens, and it can be making it more susceptible to erosion. washed away. Overgrazing: Livestock like cows, Flood irrigation: This method can sheep, and goats eat vegetation down to cause significant runoff and erosion if the ground, leaving the soil exposed and not properly managed, especially on prone to erosion by wind and water. sloped lands. Pesticides and Fertilizers: Overuse can harm the natural organisms in the soil, 6. Logging reducing its ability to retain water and Clear-cutting: Removing all trees in an structure, which increases the risk of area leads to bare soil that is unprotected erosion. from wind and rain, making it highly 3. Urbanization susceptible to erosion. Road building for logging: The Construction: Building homes, roads, creation of access roads also disturbs the and other infrastructure disturbs the land soil and increases erosion risk. and removes vegetation. This leaves  7. Climate Change and Human Definition: A mudflow is a specific type Impact of debris flow, but it consists of finer particles like silt and clay, mixed with Increased frequency of storms: Climate a large amount of water. It has a change, driven by human activities, can lead to smoother, more liquid consistency than more intense rainfall, which accelerates soil a debris flow. erosion, especially in areas already disturbed by Characteristics: human activities. Very fluid due to the high water content Changing weather patterns: Some areas may (up to 60% or more). become drier, which can lead to increased wind Often occurs in semi-arid regions erosion in arid regions. where the ground can't absorb sudden heavy rains. Mass Wasting: Mudflows can travel long distances at 1. Debris flow: high speeds, following valleys or river channels. Definition: A debris flow is a type of Common in areas with loose soil and fast-moving mass wasting that involves little vegetation, which are vulnerable a mixture of soil, rock, water, and to flash floods. debris (e.g., trees, boulders). It often The fine particles in a mudflow allow it flows down slopes or through channels, to spread over wide areas. similar to a river of mud and rocks. Triggers: Heavy rainfall, volcanic Characteristics: eruptions (which can melt ice or snow and mix with ash to create a "lahar"), ○ It contains a high percentage of and snowmelt. coarse materials, like large Example: A volcanic mudflow, or rocks and boulders, mixed with lahar, can be extremely destructive, as finer particles (sand and soil). seen in the eruption of Mount St. ○ Debris flows are very fast and Helens. destructive, especially in steep areas. 3. Slump: ○ Often triggered by heavy rainfall, volcanic activity, or Definition: A slump is a type of slow to snowmelt. moderately rapid mass wasting in which ○ Flows follow pre-existing a large mass of rock or soil moves channels (like rivers or valleys) downward along a curved surface, but can spread out into fan-like typically creating a concave-shaped shapes at the base of a slope. depression at the top and a bulging mass at the base. Example: Debris flows can happen in mountainous areas after heavy rains or Characteristics: after a wildfire has removed vegetation. 2. Mud flow:  ○ Involves a block of material Sedimentation: the process by which sediments (soil, rock, or debris) that moves (small particles of rock, soil, and organic as a cohesive unit. material) are transported and deposited in a ○ The movement occurs along a new location. Over time, these sediments curved or rotational slip accumulate, and under the right conditions, they surface, creating a stepped can form sedimentary rocks. appearance on the slope. ○ Often happens in areas with Endogenic: Processes that occur or are created soft, unconsolidated materials under the Earth's surface. like clay or loose soil. ○ Triggered by factors such as the a. Magmatism: saturation of the slope from heavy rainfall, undercutting by a river or road construction, or even earthquakes. Example: A hillside slump after prolonged rainfall can cause part of a slope to slide down, leaving a crescent-shaped scar at the top. Definition: Magmatism refers to the Triggers of Mass Wasting processes involved in the formation, Water Saturation: Heavy rain or movement, and cooling of magma snowmelt can saturate soil, reducing (molten rock) beneath or at the Earth’s friction and causing the material to flow surface. It is a key part of the rock cycle downhill. and is responsible for the formation of Oversteepening of Slopes: Natural igneous rocks. processes (like river erosion) or human activities (like road construction) can Magma is formed when rocks in the create slopes that are too steep to be Earth's mantle or crust melt due to high stable. temperatures, pressure changes, or the Earthquakes: Seismic activity can addition of volatiles (like water). dislodge rocks and debris, causing them to move downslope. b. Volcanism or Plutonism: Loss of Vegetation: Removing trees and plants (due to deforestation or wildfires) Definition: Volcanism refers to the reduces root structures that hold soil in process through which magma from place, making the slope more prone to beneath the Earth's crust rises to the movement. surface and erupts as lava, ash, or gases through volcanoes.  Volcanoes are the surface expressions of volcanic activity, where molten rock (lava), ash, and gases escape from beneath the Earth's surface. Types of volcanoes based on activity: 1. Shield Volcanoes 1. Active Volcanoes Characteristics: Definition: A volcano that has erupted ○ Broad, gently sloping sides that recently or is currently erupting, and has resemble a warrior's shield. a high likelihood of erupting again in the ○ Built by low-viscosity basaltic near future. lava flows that travel long Shows signs of volcanic activity such as distances. gas emissions, seismic activity ○ Eruptions are usually effusive (earthquakes), or ground deformation. (non-explosive) and produce Examples: Mount Etna (Italy), Kīlauea lava flows rather than violent (Hawaii). explosions. ○ Size: Can be very large and cover wide areas. ○ Examples: Mauna Loa and 2. Dormant Volcanoes Kīlauea in Hawaii. Definition: A volcano that is not currently erupting but has erupted in historical times and has the potential to erupt again in the future. 2. Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes) Appears inactive but may show signs of future reactivation. Characteristics: Examples: Mount Rainier (USA), ○ Tall, steep-sided, and Mount Fuji (Japan). symmetrical. ○ Built by alternating layers of lava flows, ash, and pyroclastic materials from explosive 3. Extinct Volcanoes eruptions. Definition: A volcano that has not ○ Eruptions can be highly erupted for tens of thousands of years explosive, due to the high and is not expected to erupt again. viscosity of the magma (usually No signs of volcanic activity and is andesitic or rhyolitic). considered geologically dead. ○ Size: Typically large, Examples: Kohala (Hawaii), Ben Nevis cone-shaped. (Scotland). ○ Examples: Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St. Helens (USA), Major types of volcanoes: Mount Vesuvius (Italy). 3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes Molten rock that flows down the volcano’s sides after an eruption. Can be Characteristics: smooth (pahoehoe) or rough (aa). ○ Small, steep-sided, and conical in shape. 2. Ash: ○ Built from pyroclastic fragments like ash, tephra, and Fine volcanic dust and particles ejected volcanic rocks ejected from a into the air, capable of traveling long single vent. distances. ○ Eruptions are typically short-lived and explosive, 3. Lapilli: producing large amounts of volcanic debris. Small rock fragments (2-64 mm) hurled ○ Size: Smaller than shield and into the air during eruptions. stratovolcanoes, with heights usually less than 300 meters. 4. Volcanic Bombs: ○ Examples: Parícutin (Mexico), Large fragments of molten rock that Sunset Crater (USA). solidify as they fall. 5. Pumice: 4. Lava Domes (Volcanic Domes) Light, porous volcanic rock formed Characteristics: from gas-rich magma, often capable of ○ Dome-shaped, formed from floating on water. highly viscous lava (often rhyolitic) that piles up near the 6. Pyroclastic Flows: vent instead of flowing far. Fast-moving, hot clouds of ash, gas, and ○ Eruptions are slow and volcanic debris, deadly and destructive. effusive, but domes can collapse, triggering pyroclastic 7. Lahars: flows. ○ Size: Smaller than shield or Mudflows of volcanic ash and debris stratovolcanoes but can be mixed with water, resembling wet dangerous due to dome collapse. concrete. ○ Examples: Lassen Peak (USA), Novarupta (Alaska, 8. Volcanic Gases: USA). Emissions like water vapor (H₂O), Products of Volcanic eruptions: carbon dioxide (CO₂), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂), which can affect air quality and climate. 1. Lava Flows: 9. Volcanic Craters/Calderas:  Depressions formed by explosive Tension Pulling Elongates Divergent eruptions or volcanic collapse. apart or and thins boundaries stretching material (rift valleys) Metamorphism: Confining Uniform Increases Pressure from stress density, overlying d. Contact applied in alters layers deep - When magma comes in contact all properties within Earth with an already existing body of directions rock - Small area is affected - Produces non-foliated rocks - Ex: Marble, quartzite, hornfels e. Regional - Affects a much larger area - Caused by large geologic processes such as mountain-building - Foliated rocks - Ex: Gneiss and schist - High temperature f. Dynamic - Also due to mountain-building - Huge force of heat and pressure cause the rocks to be bent, crushed, flattened, and sheared - Along faults CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE - Non-foliated TECTONICS: - Low temperature Alfred Wegener (1880-1930): TYPES OF STRESSES: - Developed Continental Drift Theory - Earth came from only one supergiant Type of Definition Effect Example land mass called “Pangea” Stress - Laurasia: Northern Continents - Gondwanaland: Southern Continents Compressi Squeezing Shortens Convergent on or pushing and boundaries together thickens (mountain Proof of continental drift theory: material ranges) Shearing Forces Deforms Transform acting by sliding boundaries 1. Jigsaw Puzzle Fit parallel past (San Andreas but in Fault) Description: The coastlines of opposite continents, particularly South America directions  and Africa, fit together remarkably well, ○ Magnetic Striping: As magma resembling pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. rises at mid-ocean ridges, it Significance: This visual similarity cools and records the Earth's suggests that these continents were once magnetic field. Symmetric part of a larger landmass, called patterns of magnetic striping on Pangaea, which has since broken apart. either side of the ridge indicate The matching shapes indicate that they that new crust is continuously were once connected and have since being formed and pushed drifted apart. outward. ○ Geomagnetic Reversal: Some 2. Rocks and Structures iron-rich igneous rocks are magnetized opposite to the Description: Geological formations, Earth’s magnetic field when including mountain ranges and rock they cool down types, show continuity across Significance: Seafloor spreading continents. provides a mechanism for continental Examples: drift, showing how ocean basins expand ○ The Appalachian Mountains as continents move apart. in North America align with the Caledonian Mountains in 4. Terrestrial Fossils Scotland and the Scandinavian Mountains, suggesting these Description: Similar fossils of plants mountain ranges had similar and animals have been found on coal and rock formations before continents that are now separated by the continents separated. vast oceans. ○ Similar rock types and ages Examples: found in both South America ○ Mesosaurus: A freshwater and Africa provide additional reptile whose fossils have been evidence for their historical found in both South America connection. and Africa, suggesting these Significance: The alignment of continents were once connected. geological structures supports the idea ○ Glossopteris: A seed fern found that continents were once joined in South America, Africa, together and later drifted apart. Australia, Antarctica, and India, indicating that these landmasses 3. Seafloor Spreading were once part of a larger continent. Harry Hess: Discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ○ Lystrosaurus: A land reptile ○ Cygnonathus: A land reptile Description: The process by which new Significance: The distribution of oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean identical fossils across continents that ridges and then spreads outward, are now geographically isolated pushing older crust away from the ridge. supports the idea of continental drift, as Evidence:  these species could not have migrated across oceans. 5. Ancient Climate Description: Evidence of ancient climates found in regions that now have different climate conditions. Examples: ○ Glacial deposits and striations found in currently tropical regions (e.g., India, Africa, South America) suggest that these areas were once located closer to the South Pole and experienced glaciation. ○ Coal deposits found in polar regions indicate that these areas were once warm and tropical. Significance: The mismatched climate Definition: Where two plates move indicators provide evidence that toward each other and collide. continents have moved over time, Subtypes: shifting from one climate zone to ○ Oceanic-Continental another. Convergence: The denser oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath) the lighter 7 Major Plates: continental plate. 1. Eurasian Example: The Nazca 2. Pacific Plate subducting 3. South American beneath the South 4. North American American Plate, 5. African leading to the formation 6. Antarctic of the Andes Mountains 7. Indo-Australian and volcanic activity. ○ Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence: One oceanic plate PLATE BOUNDARIES: subducts beneath another, forming a trench and potentially leading to volcanic Convergent Boundaries: island arcs.  Example: The Definition: Where two plates slide past Mariana Trench, each other horizontally. where the Pacific Plate Movement: Plates move laterally, subducts beneath the causing stress that can lead to Mariana Plate. earthquakes. ○ Continental-Continental Example: The San Andreas Fault in Convergence: California, where the Pacific Plate slides Two continental plates past the North American Plate. collide, causing neither Geological Features: Fault lines and to subduct. Instead, they frequent earthquakes. crumple and fold, forming mountain ranges. Example: The Himalayas, formed by the collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Geological Features: Deep ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and mountain ranges. Divergent Boundaries: Definition: Where two plates move away from each other. Process: New oceanic crust is created as magma rises to fill the gap, resulting in seafloor spreading. Examples: ○ Mid-Atlantic Ridge: A divergent boundary where the Eurasian and North American plates are moving apart, creating new oceanic crust. ○ East African Rift: A CCF: continental rift where the African Plate is splitting into the Somali and Nubian plates. 1. Defining the Phenomenal Word “Poor” Geological Features: Mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, and volcanic activity. Definition of Poverty: ○ General Definition: A state of Transform Boundaries: economic deprivation characterized by a lack of  financial resources to meet basic holding power and needs for living, such as food, influence in society. clothing, shelter, healthcare, and Example: Business education. tycoons, high-ranking Dimensions of Poverty: political figures. ○ Absolute Poverty: A condition ○ Middle Class: where individuals lack the basic Characteristics: means to sustain life, often Individuals or families measured by income levels with moderate income below the poverty line. levels, typically ○ Relative Poverty: The including professionals, condition where individuals or skilled workers, and families have significantly less small business owners. income or resources compared Example: Teachers, to the average within a society, healthcare leading to social exclusion and professionals, office reduced quality of life. workers. Indicators of Poverty: ○ Lower Class: ○ Income level below the national Characteristics: poverty threshold. Individuals or families ○ Lack of access to essential with low income, often services (education, healthcare). facing economic ○ Poor living conditions (lack of instability and sanitation, unsafe housing). struggling to meet basic Consequences of Poverty: needs. ○ Limited access to opportunities, Example: Service leading to a cycle of poverty. workers, low-wage ○ Negative impacts on physical laborers. and mental health. ○ Underclass: ○ Increased vulnerability to social Characteristics: Groups issues such as crime and facing chronic poverty violence. and social exclusion, often without stable employment or access to resources. 2. Classifying the Social Classes in Society Example: Homeless individuals, long-term Social Class Categories: unemployed. ○ Upper Class: Social Mobility: Characteristics: Wealthy ○ The ability to move between individuals or families social classes, influenced by with significant education, economic financial assets, often opportunities, and social networks.  accessing resources and support systems. 3. Identifying the Various Poor Sectors of Factors Contributing to Poverty: Society ○ Economic instability, lack of access to quality education and Key Poor Sectors: healthcare, political corruption, ○ Urban Poor: and social discrimination. Description: Individuals and families living in urban areas, often in slums or informal 4. Differentiating Inequality, Equality, Equity, settlements, facing high and Justice living costs and inadequate services. Inequality: ○ Rural Poor: ○ Definition: The unequal Description: distribution of resources, Agricultural workers, opportunities, and privileges farmers, and indigenous among individuals or groups communities in rural within society. areas with limited ○ Examples: Economic disparity, access to markets, unequal access to education and education, and healthcare. healthcare. Equality: ○ Informal Workers: ○ Definition: The state of being Description: Individuals equal in rights, opportunities, engaged in unregulated and status for all individuals, or informal regardless of their background. employment, lacking ○ Focus: Providing the same job security, benefits, resources and opportunities to and protections. everyone. ○ Women and Children: Equity: Description: ○ Definition: Fairness in Particularly vulnerable treatment and resource groups, often facing distribution, taking individual additional barriers due circumstances and needs into to gender discrimination account. and child labor ○ Focus: Ensuring that individuals practices. receive different levels of ○ Elderly and Persons with support based on their specific Disabilities: needs to achieve fair outcomes. Description: Individuals Justice: who may experience ○ Definition: The principle of systemic inequalities fairness that seeks to uphold and challenges in individual rights, promote  societal well-being, and address Promote educational systemic inequalities. programs that empower ○ Focus: Creating systems and individuals, particularly policies that ensure all women and youth, to individuals have access to their advocate for their rights rights and opportunities. and participate in civic activities. 4. Collaboration with NGOs and Government: 5. Solving Societal Inequalities by Providing Partner with Concrete Actions non-governmental organizations to address Concrete Actions to Address specific needs of poor Inequalities: sectors, providing 1. Policy Reforms: support and resources. Implement laws and Advocate for regulations that promote government equal access to accountability in education, healthcare, implementing effective and employment social programs and opportunities. addressing root causes Strengthen social safety of inequality. nets to support 5. Promoting Social Inclusion: marginalized groups. Create programs that 2. Community Development: encourage inclusivity Invest in local and participation of initiatives that focus on marginalized groups in poverty alleviation, economic, political, and such as microfinance social life. programs, skills Support initiatives that training, and sustainable empower vulnerable agriculture. populations, ensuring Encourage community their voices are heard in engagement and policy-making. participation in decision-making processes. 3. Awareness and Education: Conduct awareness campaigns to educate the public on poverty, inequality, and social justice issues.