Religious of Antiquity PDF

Religious of Antiquity 1.​ Why does studying prehistoric religion present us with so many problems?​ Prehistoric religions are difficult to be traced because of the lack of precision of religious documents before 3000 BCE, this part of history is really old. Written traces...

Religious of Antiquity 1.​ Why does studying prehistoric religion present us with so many problems?​ Prehistoric religions are difficult to be traced because of the lack of precision of religious documents before 3000 BCE, this part of history is really old. Written traces cannot be found and archeologists can only rest upon bone materials or stone arrangements. Moreover, religions of that time were practiced in more restricted groups such as families for instance. All these elements led specialists to only hypothesis and not truthful knowledge. ​ 2.​ How far does the evidence of religion in the Neolithic period (c.10,000–3000 bce) reflect the needs of the societies of that era?​ The religion in the Neolithic period fulfilled the primary needs of the population of the time. Worships were practiced for fertility and agriculture needs while the first religious structure had been raised in order to provide burials. ​ ​ 3.​ Why was sacrifice such an important part of the religion of the Maya and the Aztecs?​ The Maya state religion rests upon a union between human and their gods. The gods help human in their lives with food or rain and expect a payment in return : sacrifices. For the Aztecs, they believed the gods created the Sun. To make the sun living, they provide human blood each day. So for these two religions, sacrifices is just NECESSARY for their survival. ​ ​ 4.​ Why was the development of writing so important to religion?​ A lot of invention has been born during Antiquity and surely the most important one was writing which allows historians to learn more precisely about life and religion of these societies. It leaves indelible traces. ​ ​ 5.​ Describe the different ways divination and astrology were used in ancient religions.​ In Mesopotamia, Babylonian developed sophisticated astronomical observations to predict future events. In Egypt, priests used astronomical alignments in temple construction and religious ceremonies. The Greeks consulted oracles, particularly the famous Oracle of Delphi. Romans interpreted the flight patterns of birds and other natural signs. The Mayans developed advanced astronomical calculations for religious purposes, creating elaborate calendars. ​ ​ 6.​ What does the long-term failure of the religious reforms of Amenophis IV of Egypt tell us about the status of religion in Egyptian society?​ The pharaoh Akhenaten tried to impose monotheism in order to stabilize the  kingdom. But, the reform was unpopular for a simple reason : the priests were against it. To be clear, they couldn’t earn their living if their gods did not exist anymore and the power of these priests was too strong to impose monotheism endlessly. The priority for priest was in fact to keep their job more than find the religious truth. Power and money was at the core of the Egyptian religious construction. ​ 7.​ What factors were responsible for the decline of Zoroastrianism from its peak?​ The decline of Zoroastrianism was led by the Arab invasion of Persia. Islam was spread all around the territory and Zoroastrian believers were persecuted. Marriage were banned so they struggled to reproduce themselves. ​ ​ 8.​ Explain how Zoroastrianism’s understanding of divine judgment differs from the role of the gods in Greek and Roman religion.​ In Zoroastrianism, divine judgment is based on individual moral actions between good and evil, with clear consequences in the afterlife leading to either heaven or hell. In contrast, Greek and Roman gods were more concerned with receiving proper worship and offerings than judging moral behavior. While Zoroastrian judgment was morally focused, Greco-Roman divine intervention was more arbitrary and based on maintaining proper ritual relationships. ​ ​ 9.​ Why did the religious traditions of ancient Rome die out?​ In the fourth century CE, the Antique Roman religion was slowly replaced by the Christian one. This religion was at first authorized in 313 by Constantin but then was favored thanks to its structure which was really better structured and organized. Christianity gained a lot of places in the Empire and became the successor of the ancient religion. ​ ​ 10.​Why are older interpretations of the religions of the Celts so unreliable? ​ The term of Celtic people is nowadays irrelevant according to scholars. It was first a Greek description of the tribes living at the north of the Alps and the Danube. But, it seems that this population has nothing more in common than with those of the other side of the river : no ethnic root could be applied to Celts. Indigenous Religions​ 1.​ Why is interpreting indigenous religions as ‘primitive religions’ from which ‘more advanced’ examples later emerge so problematic? The term ‘primitive religions’ is inappropriate when we talk about indigenous ones because it sends a representation of a simple religion in which its believers had not  been able to evolve to ‘more advanced’ and sophisticated ones. It does not give it enough credit and comprehension. In fact, indigenous religions might be really complex, are still practiced and are not the basis used by other religions. ​ 2.​ Why is the concept of respect so pervasive in indigenous religions? In indigenous religions, respect is essential. Believers must respect those who deserve it. With this we realize more quickly what is crucial. For example, offerings can be made such as beer in regions of Africa or even tobacco and sage for people respected among the Native Americans. Des questions peuvent se poser telle es ce que on peut toucher une personne qu’on vient de rencontrer, serrer la main ou autre…​ ​ 3.​ Why do so many indigenous religions regard witchcraft and sorcery as problematic? Les sorcières sont des personnes classiques qui ont fait des recherches profondes à la limite de l’effrayant. 3 raisons de problématiques : association avec le mal, peut perturber l’harmonie, cela transgresse les normes éthiques. ​ 4.​ Why might it be more appropriate to refer to ‘beliefs’ rather than ‘religion’ when considering indigenous traditions? The word religion may be inaccurate in the majority of the indigenous traditions because they have not the word in their language so they do not use it. The term ‘beliefs’ will be preferred. Also, according to the region studied, the ‘beliefs’ may differ a lot. ​ ​ 5.​ Explain why land is so important to Australian aborigines. For Australian aborigines, the land is important because there is a belief that the ancestors left power in this land. These special powers can be used by good but also by evil. These ancestors established tribal laws for their descendants. For them, the  living and the non-living are connected, everything is shared.​ ​ 6.​ Explain and compare the role of shamanism in two different indigenous traditions. En Asie les shaman sont choisis par les esprits. Ils rentrent dans un entrainement rigoureux et leur âme quitte leur corps. Ils amènent des instructions et rétablissent l’harmonie qui est fondamentale pour la croyance. En Amérique du Sud c’est le lien entre les hommes et le surnaturel. Il est choisi de façon héréditaire. Entrainement rigoureux d’au moins 5ans parfois jusqu’à 10ans. Isolement pour instruction longue période. Purification induite et abstinence sexuelle pendant l’isolement. ​ 7.​ Why do African religions often lack a distinction between the sacred and the secular? Les religions africaines manquent souvent d’une distinction claire entre le sacré et le profane en raison de leur vision holistique du monde, qui intègre les dimensions spirituelles, sociales et naturelles dans un tout unifié. ​ 8.​ Explain the relationship of the religion of the Bangwa with Christianity. The Bangwa call themselves Christians. The difference between them and Christians is practice. They keep certain traditions of their culture and their vision of the world by integrating it into their belief and their Christian practice. For example, polygamy which remains very common among the Bangwa, but which is considered very problematic among Western Christians ​ 9.​ Compare and contrast the beliefs of three indigenous religions. North America-> croyance autour des contraires dans la nature, croyance du Grand Esprit. Png-> 3 groupes d’esprits : les choses mauvaises (maame gai), le hisare et l’hibu yii. Inuit-> esprits habitaient dans les instrumenr utilisés pour la chasse et la pêche  ​ ​ 10.​Why is the pairing of opposites in nature so important to native North Americans? « Leur pensée et leur action sont gouvernées par le cercle, qu’ils considèrent comme fondamental dans la nature : la forme de la lune et du soleil, les étoiles tournoyantes au-dessus d’eux, les saisons tournantes, les actions des oiseaux et des animaux. ‘Tout essaie d’être rond. » Cette forme se retrouve dans tout ce qu’ils font – dans le mythe, la cérémonie, l’art et l’organisation communautaire. Le centre du cercle est essentiel, et il est créé. Il s’agit du symbole du Grand Esprit, qui se reflète dans toutes les danses autour du feu, du tambour ou du poteau et dans des cérémonies telles que la pipe sacrée. ribal les gens réfléchissent aussi sur la dualité de la vie et de la nature. Les Amérindiens symbolisent cela par un cercle divisé, comme dans les boucliers des plaines et dans de nombreuses formes d’art et d’artisanat. La nature se présente par paires : sombre et clair, froid et chaud, mâle et femelle, bon et mauvais, etc. Ces éléments ne sont pas contradictoires, mais complémentaires.” Hinduism​ 1.​ What continuities are there between early Vedic religion and modern Hinduism? Modern Hinduism roots belong to Vedic religion. Hinduism is the evolution of the first Vedic texts and customs. Vedic society was divided in plural categories so as the actual Hindu castes and plural fundamentals were developed during this era. Some main features : ​ Atman : soul of the human being ​ Dukkha : suffering as the nature of the life stuck in an infinite circle. ​ Samsara : the life is built as a circle. All beings that have lived and died are reincarnated into a new one. ​ Karma : during this infinity cycle, the actions have an impact (positive or negative) on the future lives. ​ Moksha : the liberation of this cycle of suffering which can be reach through positive karma. ​ Dharma : spiritual and human laws that you need to follow to become a good man. 2.​ Explain the different views of the role of Brahman in Hinduism. The Brahman is a complex concept in Hindiusm. It is the core idea of the world which is limitless and unchangeable. It refers the spiritual power of everything. We can understand it as the supreme religious and metaphysical principle, the substantial and immutable foundation of all reality. 3.​ Explain the different views of the nature of human existence held by the three main Vedantic schools (Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita). A still existing debate within the Hindu religions is about the similarity between the Brahman (divine essence) and the atman (human being) ; it opposes three views of the problem. 1.​ The Advaita school : the human nature is equal to the divine one (non-dualistic view) : they form ONE single thing.​ 2.​ The Vishishtadvaita view is more balanced : yet a common basis between human and deities is shared, the atman keeps some particularities at the same time.​ 3.​ The Dvaita school is close of what we know with Christianism or Islam : a duality is present between the flawed human being and the God.​ 4.​ What role do the Ramayana and Mahabarata play in helping to attain liberation?​ Ramayana and Mahabarata are two epic texts that form the sacred writings of Hinduism. They are central in the religion because they provide teachings, lessons and a pathway to self-realization to transcend the samsara. 5.​ Explain why some believe the term ‘Hinduisms’ to be more appropriate than ‘Hinduism’. Hinduism is a term surely less appropriate than ‘Hinduisms’. Indeed, the construction of this religion follow a long path and included really different cultures, traditions and customs. Pluralism and variety is at the root of Hinduisms : the Hindus are usually not closed in their dogma and can include easily beliefs from the outside. Moreover, these beliefs are not strict and are seen by many as a philosophy of life to follow. 6.​ Why are Shiva and Vishnu considered to be so important? Shiva and Vishnu are supreme gods in the Hindu mythology. With Brahma, they form a trinity (trimurti). Brahma created the world. Vishnu maintains the balance of the world by protecting the dharma ; he often appears on the living world as avatars to fight against devils : he is the guardian of living being. Then, Shiva is the god of destruction and of the renew. Knowing that the world is an infinite cycle that cannot be stopped, the collapse of the world by Shiva means the starting of a brand new world full of hope. These two deities are among the most important ones for the Hindu and are at the source of many worships. → Brahma : creation of the world → Vishnu : law / balance of the world → Shiva : destruction of the world (life and death) 7.​ Why do Hindus understand moksha (liberation) in a variety of different ways? Hindus understand moksha in various ways because of the diversity of philosophical schools, scriptures, and spiritual practices within Hinduism. This diversity reflects the pluralist and inclusive nature of Hinduism. 8.​ Explain some of the different roles of the guru in Hinduism. Guru can play different roles such as spiritual leader, mentors, healers or teachers of scriptures. In all cases, the gurus are present to help the journey of the believers and to support them. 9.​ Why are some geographical sites seen as sacred in Hinduism? The places seen as sacred in Hinduism are those associated with deities or divine events or energies. It could be buildings but also rivers and mounts : these sites must inspire a connection with the Brahman. 10.​Why has the caste system been so important in Hinduism and Indian society? The caste pyramid is a well-organized system in the Indian society going from the Untouchable at the bottom to the Brahmins at the top (the priests). Even if this system may appear as unfair from the outside, it is not for the Hinduist society. Hinduism rests upon karma and samsara. All babies coming to the world will belong to a certain caste calculated thanks to their actions during their past lives. To evolve from a caste to a superior one, Hindi must obtain a good karma and achieve good actions to hope for evolving in future lives. Equal opportunities at the birth have no sense following these ideas. 1.​ Brahmins ⇒ ritual specialists, priests 2.​ Kshatriyas ⇒ military elites 3.​ Vaishyas ⇒ common people 4.​ Untouchables Buddhism​ 1.​ Why is human experience so important for a follower of Buddhism? Human experience is fundamental for Buddhist followers as it represents the direct path to understanding and enlightenment. They need to experience suffering, desire and impermanence to understand the teachings more then believe blindly in the Buddhist knowledge. This experiential approach allows them to verify the teachings for themselves rather than simply accepting them on authority. 2.​ Explain how the Four Noble Truths help Buddhists attain nirvana. For Buddhists, the Four Noble Truths are a key to understand the heart of the life. They describe the world as the state of Dukkha which is a state of suffering due to the infinite attachments and desires. In order to get out of this suffering cycle, they must stop to desire and must follow the Eightfold Path to attain the nirvana (the ultimate liberation : the end of suffering). To manage to attain it, it is important to know, understand and accept these Four Noble Truths. 4 Nobles Truths : 1.​ Suffering exists 2.​ Cause of suffering 3.​ End of suffering 4.​ Ways to end suffering The Four Noble Truths are the believer’s instructions to attain nirvana. 3.​ What is Mahayana Buddhism? Mahayana Buddhism is a sanskrit term referring to ‘Great Vehicule’ and designs plural complex schools of Buddhisms. It is the first that appeared in the texts and it is proud to name itself as the voice of Buddha. This school gives a guide for the bodhisattvas **which are the ones ready to awaken, to become a Buddha (which can concern everybody). A major detail in the bodhisattvas is that they do not manage to get close to the liberation for themselves but for helping all other living beings. 4.​ What is the difference between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, and why are they not directly comparable? Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism are not directly comparable by many points. First, Theravada is mainly practiced in Southeast Asia while Mahayana is dominant in China, Japan, and Tibet. Even if they both seek to find the way to the liberation of suffering, they use a different path to achieve it : the Theravada school focuses on the ‘self’ to become a awaken being ; Mahayana believers put an emphasis on a collective liberation of all being. 5.​ Why did Sanskrit become so important in Buddhism? At the beginning of the Buddhists teachings, beliefs and narrative were given through different languages rather than Sanskrit by oral transmission. Translations have led the religion to have a lot of versions. Then, scriptures started to be given in Sanskrit which is the common Indian language. It helped Buddhism in its development because every monk or believer could analyse the writings of another region without any difficulty of translation : idea of unification of the beliefs. 6.​ What is Tantric Buddhism and why is it regarded as controversial? Tantric Buddhism requires initiation and ritual magic to help the believer to achieve quicker the nirvana by controlling hidden forces. These Tantras practices are regarded as controversial because they can be easily secret, borderline and taboo (like sexual practices) : some elements of renunciation which are at the core of Buddhism can be violated in this.  7.​ Why is abstention so important in Buddhist morality? Abstention is part of the main principles of Buddhism because it is how the believers may avoid attachment and suffering. In the path to enlightenment, abstention teaches them to gain self-discipline to reduce the karmic consequences of their actions. 8.​ What is Cao Dai, and how does it differ from other Buddhist traditions? Cao Dai is a Vietnamese syncretic religion gathering elements from Chinese religion, Western Catholicism and Buddhism. The difference is in the fact the Cao Daists believe in the presence of a supreme creator-god : they are monotheist. Cao Dai has its own religious structure and practices even if it incorpores Buddhist elements such as karma. 9.​ Explain the role of meditation in Buddhism. Meditation is present in the Eightfold Path, so it plays an huge role in the Buddhist liberation of the mind, the cleaning of it. The Tranquility meditation allows the user to be concentrate on its breathe without any jugement, thanks to that he could get its mind cleaned and connected to the present. Meditation helps the believer to get out of the ignorance in order to elevate itself. Meditator can see images in its mind as clouds that just pass through as a voyage in its thoughts : impermanence is also present here. 10.​Explain some of the different ways that Buddhism has been affected by encounters with the West. Interest in meditation, mindfulness, and non-theistic approach but also western colonisation have led Buddhism to be more opened to the West. The religion was in some places adapted to the western customs. These adaptions are closed to the modern features like secularism, science, digital lifestyle. Jainism​ 1.​ What is the role of a jina? Jina is a sanskrit term that means ford-maker. This term defines spiritual leaders and guide of Jainism which are now at the number of 24. They are those that had already reached the liberation of the samsara and must provide a ‘ford’ to pass the river of suffering to the Jains. Their teachings and principals are essential for the believers and they are pictured as perfect and venerable. 2.​ Explain the main points of disagreement between Digambara and Shvetambara Jains. Two main sects or school of Jainism are called Digambara and Shvetambara. They disagree on many points so as the fact that Shvetambara Jains believes that their first scripture were preserved and can be used where Digambara Jains argue there were lost so they question the legitimacy and authority of it. So the canon differs but that is not the sole element. They have their own customs and community ; they divide India in two (Digambara for the South, Shvetambara for the North-West). 3.​ Why is asceticism so important in Jainism? Asceticism is primordial in Jainism because it takes part of the path of enlightenment of the soul. Vows of renunciation and non-violence are a way to cleanse the soul. 4.​ Explain why Jains do not believe enlightenment is possible during the current cosmic era. In the current cosmic era, the capacities of the human mind and body are limited. In that way, the enlightenment achievement is unfavorable because the spiritual discipline is less appropriate. 5.​ Why is the Digambara scriptural canon so much smaller than the Shvetamara canon? The Digambara scriptural canon is limited by the fact they consider the original scriptures of Jainism as lost. They indeed rely on much less texts. 6.​ Explain the Jain conception of karma and its role in trapping a soul in samsara. In the Jain conception, the karma is pictured as a physical thing attached to the soul of the believer. Beyond that, the karma triggers infinite actions and reactions to the mental of physical level that can be attachment or aversion to an event or an actions. Karma keeps the souls in an infinite cycle of reincarnations which is called samsara. The point of Jains is to control this karma’s action to work on their potential liberation. 7.​ Why do Digambara and Shvetambara Jains have different views about the role of women? Shvetambara Jains believe that women can also reach liberation where Digambaras Jain think that they need to be first reincarnated in men : women are said to be incapable of salvation because they cannot go without clothes. 8.​ Why do Jains have such a strong position on non-violence? Non-violence is one of the five vows in the ascetic ritual and one of the more important value of Jainism. The non-violence does not only refers to violence towards human but all living beings. Non-violence was the way used by Mahavira to reach enlightenment. For Jains, all living beings can suffer and have a soul. If even insects have a soul, that means that they can potentially seek for liberation in their future lives. In that way, it would be dangerous for the karma to hurt another living being. 9.​ What attracts Jains to an ascetic lifestyle? Asceticism is the way to cleanse the soul from the karma. The goal of it is to reach the liberation of the samsara by rejecting all kind of violence and attachment through eleven stages of renunciation and five main vows. For example : clothes, meat, violence and property are prohibited. This extreme kind of lifestyle is often lived by monks and the other believers respect them hardly for that and they give them food and stuff to help them in their work of begging. This lifestyle is not only attractive but essential in the believer’s path because the user loses its secular role in society. 10.​Why does modern life pose so many problems for strict Jains? They cannot travel on another country. They are ascetic and anti-violent which is the opposite of the modern life. Their ideas can clash with mass-food production and current consumerism. Also, the modern world is quick and leaves less time for meditation or others spiritual practices. Chinese Religions​ 1.​ How have the concepts of yin and yang influenced religion in China? Though the nature of Shang religion is shrouded in mystery, there is a clear thread of continuity between Shang beliefs and later Chinese religion. A lasting belief in the balance of nature is evident, the concepts of Yin and Yang: opposing forces of of soft and hard, of female and male, dark and light. ​ 2.​ Explain the importance of the ‘consciousness of concern’ in the history of Chinese religion. Contrary to Western religions, in China, the basis of the cosmos takes human needs into account. The Heaven is ‘conscious of the concerns’ so believers do not have to fear the power of the holy knowing it finds interest in solving people problems. This element is important because it had placed ethical and philosophical questions in the foundation of the Chinese religions leading them to differ from Wester ones. 3.​ Is Confucianism a religion? Explain your answer. Non, c’est un courant de pensée qui vise à créer une société harmonieuse grâce à la culture des vertus personnelles, à l’importance des rites et au respect des relations  sociales hiérarchiques.​ ​ 4.​ Mencius or Hsün-tzu: who was more important in the development of Confucianism – and why? Mencius comme Confucius a de grandes intuitions mais Hsun-tzu a mis en place un modèle pour la vie quotidienne avec toutes les intuitions des génis religieux. Sans cela les intuitions seraient impossible à maintenir.​ ​ 5.​ What are the aims and beliefs of the Taoist religion? Taoism tends to release from societal structures, favoring instead a focus on nature's contemplation and pursuing fulfillment through spontaneity and principles that transcend conventional ethics. The manner in which it is teach encourage a union with itself, embracing a path of quiet acceptance and mystical reflection. Immortality is the aims of Taoism.​ ​ 6.​ How do Confucianism and the Taoist religion differ? Confucianism wants perfection in man and woman unlike Taoism seeks to perceive nature. Moreover, confucianism aims to become submissive to society while remaining wise whereas Taoism seeks only immortality​ ​ 7.​ How have Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism influenced each other in China? First of all, Taoism and Confucianism are present in China but even many debates. Although these two religions are derived from Buddhism, the arrival of the latter in China is complicated at first. During the Ming dynasty, religious thinkers tried to link the three religions. Lin sought to take the best of each. It is therefore possible to  belong to the three religions at the same time and say that the Chinese religion is a mixture of these three major religions. ​ 8.​ How and why does Christianity in China today differ from Christianity elsewhere? Christianity in China is especially popular in the countryside. Being poor people few religious instructions are made for these christians. English missionaries came to China to teach them. All this is explained by the processus of sinicization as for Chinese Buddhism.​ ​ 9.​ Explain the role of ancestor worship in China. Le culte des ancêtres joue un rôle central dans la culture et la religion chinoises depuis des millénaires. Il s’agit d’une pratique rituelle et spirituelle visant à honorer les membres décédés de la famille, en reconnaissant leur influence continue sur les vivants et en maintenant un lien entre les générations.​ ​ 10.​How far has Maoist Communism been responsible for shaping religion in China since 1949? Le maoïsme a profondément transformé le paysage religieux en Chine depuis 1949, en cherchant à marginaliser ou à éliminer les croyances traditionnelles. Bien que la religion ait connu une résurgence sous des formes variées après Mao, les traces de cette période de répression restent visibles, notamment dans le contrôle étroit exercé par l’État sur la vie religieuse. La politique maoïste a donc non seulement réduit l’influence des religions, mais aussi redéfini leur rôle dans la société chinoise moderne. Korean and Japanese Religions​ 1. Explain the importance of yin and yang in Sinkyo. Permet une harmonie qui se renouvelle souvent. Yin-> négatif, yang-> positif. Il doit avoir aussi une harmonie des cinq éléments : bois, métal, feu, eau, terre. 2. Why is ritual sacrifice important in Sinyo? C’est le chemin pour le « paradise lost » 3. Explain the role of the Mudang in traditional Korean life. Elle a un rôle central, elle guéris les maladies mentales et physiques. Elle fait des sacrifices pour promouvoir une bonne récolte (agriculture et pêche). Elle peut rappeler des esprits de morts après un enterrement pour les emmener au royaume bienheureux e pour pacifier les esprits de ceux qui meurt de façons tragiques ou violent. 4. How has Confucianism influenced Sinkyo? ​Vu le monde d’une nouvelle manière. Le culte des anciens est apparu. Avec des offrandes aux parents et aux ancêtres. 5. How has geography influenced the development of religion in Japan? Quatre iles qui se sont développés différemment dans l’histoire. Ile principale avec des grands temples. Une autre pas historiquement religieuse mais il y a des pèlerinages connus. Une autre où des missionnaires protestants sont venus. Et enfin la dernière proche de la Corée donc beaucoup d’influence d’eux + une influence de catholique romains. Après le christianisme a été supprimé. 6. What is the purpose of Shinto shrines? Shinto contemporain repose sur chaque sanctuaire individuel. 3 types de shrine : local, spécifique, d’importance nationale ou semi politique 7. How does Japanese Buddhism differ from varieties found elsewhere? Beaucoup de différentes écoles (exemple Tendai et Shingon ou encore le Sutra du Lotus). Mais aussi influence d’abord de la Corée puis de la Chine. 8. How has Buddhism shaped wider Japanese culture? Par la voie traditionnelle des samouraïs->bushido Par l'austère, avec ses nombreux thèmes bouddhistes Par la cérémonie du thé, qui vise à communiquer la simplicité et le naturel Par la calligraphie et la peinture, etc. L'aspect le plus vivant du bouddhisme japonais reste cependant la foi populaire dirigée vers les différents bouddhas, bodhisattvas et saints de la tradition bouddhiste Mahayana. 9. Why have elements of Shinto been controversial in recent decades?​ Les éléments du Shinto ont été controversés dans les dernières décennies en raison de leur association avec le militarisme et le nationalisme au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, De plus, la revitalisation de certaines pratiques shintoïstes dans un contexte nationaliste soulève des inquiétudes, tant au Japon qu'à l'international. 10. How are the religious traditions of Korea and Japan similar – and how do they differ? Similar: bouddhism, Shinto et respect des ancêtres Differences: bouddhism bien plus ancré en Coree, pour le Japon c’est une pratique parallèle. Le christianime en Coree est bien plus rependu. Les rituels au Japon sont des prières et des offrandes alors qu’en Corée c’est plus des divination fait par les mudangs. Judaism​  1.​ Explain the differences between the religion of the ancient Judeans and rabbinic Judaism. The religion of the ancient Judeans was based on the worship of the Temple of Jerusalem and the high respect of the covenant including sacrifices. The rabbinic Judaism is the current one where rabbins apply the Jewish laws according to the Torah study and others religions feature so as the prayer and the sinagogue. 2.​ What were the implications for Judaism of the destruction of the Temple in 70 ce? After the Jewish revolts against the Roman forces, the Temple of Jerusalem has been destroyed in 70 ce. This event led the Jewish communities to be divided all over plural territories in Middle East, North Africa and Europe during a diaspora. The unification of this people within Jerusalem territory was not possible anymore : the Jews’ cultures rested upon the territory where they now lived. 3.​ Why was medieval Europe often such an inhospitable place for Jews? Within medieval Europe, Jews were often subject of persecution and must change of land. Where Christianity became the main religion, Judaism believers were not allowed to own a land so to become farmers. They were perceived as responsible of Jesus’ crucifixion and other crimes. 4.​ Explain the importance of the covenant to Judaism. The covenant plays an important role to Judaism. God and people are linked through different covenants in order to improve the world. Within these covenants, God accepts to act upon a subject in order to help humankind if in exchange believers must fulfill an objective : it is like a common work. Jews people see itself as the God’s chosen people : their ancestors were those who have formulated a covenant with God. During the covenant with Abraham, God promised to let Abraham and his descendants to have a protection and a land if they respect the faith. The circumcision is now used as a symbol of this covenant. 5.​ How important are Maimonides’ Thirteen Principles of the Faith for Judaism? Even if debate is present in the religion of Judaism, the Thirteen Principles from the dogma of the Jewish faith for the majority of Jews : the principles form the foundations of the religion. But not all Jewish communities accept them universally and there is still diverse interpretations of faith. 6.​ Explain the different roles of Tanakh, Mishnah, and Talmud in rabbinic Judaism. The Tanakh is the term used to design all Jewish sacred writings divided in plural sub-sections. It is the name of the Hebrew bible. The Mishnah is a written collection of Jewish oral traditions and oral law. The Mishnah covers every conceivable area of Jewish daily life and ritual purity. It is meant to explain and protect the Written Torah. The Talmud is a vast collection of writings containing the teachings of the rabbis. It also contains debates about the significance and implementation of the Tanakh and Mishnah. The Talmud is not mainly concerned with answers, but it is filled with questions and discussions on how these questions might be answered.  7.​ Why are there such different views within Judaism about the coming of the Messiah? The different views about the coming of the Messiah takes source from the diversity of interpretations of it through the scriptures and the historical events. Some see the Messiah as a savior, a hope for the future of humanity while others claim to make him a metaphor of peace and justice. 8.​ Explain the main differences between Orthodox and Reform Judaism. Orthodox Judaism is a movement characterized by a closeness toward the Torah rules. The believers prefer to perpetuate the religion practiced by the older generations : in fact, they fully respect the work of the rabbis and trust education. In the other hand, reform Judaism would easily prefer to adapt the sacred writings teaching to the modern world. Reformists believe in the ideas of modern world such as freedom, female integration and equality. Closer to secular cultures, they can criticize some aspects of the teachings. The religion is for the Reformists a personal and more or less free matter. To be clear, Orthodox Judaism does not condemn change : no, they want some modifications but without being opposed to the Torah. 9.​ Why is the state of Israel so important in Judaism today? The state of Israel comes from the Zionist dream to provide a homeland for all Jewish people after centuries of being chased and in exile. It is the place of plural religions, cultures, populations and conflicts and represent one of the most disputed land in the world. For Jews, the state of Israel is the accomplishment of the God’s promise towards Abraham that he will give him a land (Judea) for his people which is the Jews. For them, this land belongs to them and must be strong to be able to welcome all Jews of the world. 10.​How is modern Judaism able to contain such diverse views on questions of belief and practice? The historical development of different schools of thought is common in Judaism. The diversity of interpretations and opinions does not avoid them to keep a shared identity and basis of values. The focus on shared practices and ethical values rather than strict uniformity in beliefs. Christianity​ 1.​ Why did Christianity separate from Judaism? The main thing that differentiates Judaism from Christianity is Jesus. In the Old Testament it is written that a Messiah will come to save the Jews. The Jews are still  waiting for him while the Christians think that this Messiah is Jesus. For the Jews, Jesus is only a prophet. During the life of Jesus his apostles told his life. This. Which became for the Christians of the New Testament. Christians have two books: the Old Testament (common to the Jews) and the New Testament.​ ​ 2.​ How important was the decision in 313 ce to make Christianity the Roman state religion for the future of the religion? La décision prise en 313 apr. J.-C. de légaliser le christianisme dans l’Empire romain, avec l’édit de Milan, a marqué un tournant majeur pour l’avenir du christianisme. Bien que cet édit n’ait pas encore fait du christianisme la religion officielle (cela viendra en 380 avec l’édit de Thessalonique sous Théodose Ier), il a jeté les bases pour son expansion et son influence à long terme. Cette décision a eu des conséquences profondes et durables pour la religion, tant sur le plan théologique que politique.​ ​ 3.​ Why is it so important in Christianity that Jesus is the Son of God, rather than merely a prophet? God was to send a Messiah (his son). For the Christians, Jesus is this. In Christianity there are several prophets but only one Messiah, the son of God: Jesus.​ ​ 4.​ Why is the death and resurrection of Jesus so important to Christians? The death of Jesus was done by a betrayal of one of his apostles (Judah). Jesus accepted his death to forgive all sins made for men. For the Christians his death is like a rescue for men. His resurrection is the proof for Christians that he is truly the son of God. He still had the marks of nails in his hands and feet a few days before. He came  back to save the Jewish people again.​ ​ 5.​ Explain why Jesus’ teaching was so radical at the time. Les enseignements de Jésus de Nazareth étaient considérés comme radicaux pour son époque, car ils remettaient en question les normes religieuses, sociales et culturelles établies dans le contexte du judaïsme, sous domination romaine. Par ses paroles et ses actions, Jésus proposait une vision profondément nouvelle des relations entre l’homme, Dieu, et la société. ​ ​ 6.​ Why is baptism important in Christianity? The baptism means the actual entry into Christianity. The water used for the baptism is blessed by a priest. Putting water on the head or sometimes plunging the person into that water is like bringing the lord into the mind of the person.​ ​ 7.​ Explain the doctrine of the Trinity, and how it differs between Orthodox and Western Churches. ​La doctrine de la Trinité est un des fondements du christianisme. Elle affirme que Dieu est un seul être en trois personnes distinctes : le Père, le Fils (Jésus-Christ) et le Saint-Esprit. Ces trois personnes partagent une même essence divine, tout en étant distinctes dans leurs relations et fonctions. orthodox: dieu au dessus car jesus fils et st esprit la continuité. donc Dieu + important de tous​ ​ 8.​ What was the Reformation, and what did its leaders hope to achieve? La Réforme était un mouvement religieux, théologique et social qui a débuté au début du 16e siècle en Europe et a conduit à la division de l'Église chrétienne. Ce  mouvement a été marqué par une remise en question profonde des pratiques, des doctrines et de l'autorité de l'Église catholique romaine. Le. But était de mettre « l’accent sur l’intelligibilité et la compréhension de la doctrine. Les réformateurs eux-mêmes s’efforcèrent souvent d’amener la célébration de la communion au centre de la vie de l’Église, mais les habitudes de longue date de leurs congrégations les défirent. »​ ​ 9.​ How do the Catholic, Anglican, and Reformed traditions differ from one another? Les traditions catholique, anglicane, et réformée représentent trois grandes branches du christianisme, chacune ayant ses particularités en termes de théologie, de pratiques liturgiques, et de structure. En résumé, l'anglicanisme se situe à mi-chemin entre le catholicisme et le protestantisme. Il conserve beaucoup de traditions catholiques, mais avec une plus grande flexibilité théologique et organisationnelle. Ces différences reflètent leur histoire respective et leurs compréhensions distinctes de l'autorité religieuse et de la pratique chrétienne. ​ 10.​“Christianity is no longer a European religion.’ How far do you agree or disagree with this statement? I agree with one side and not the other. No, because there is still a majority of Christians in Europe. The countries are secular but have such a Christian history that the inhabitants are still in majority. But on the other hand I agree because there are less and less Christians in Europe. In addition, continents such as South America are very Christian even if it has also been declining for some years. Islam 1.​ Why is Muhammad so important in Islam? Muhammad is the prophet and messenger of God. He received the God’s teaching that he wrote in the Quran : Jibril appeared to Muhammad which produced the revelation. Thanks to this revelation, Muhammad was able to become a spiritual guide by diffusing the voice of Allah. Nevertheless, Muhammad took the role of a political leader to conquest cities to create a Muslim state, the caliphate. He created a Muslim empire. 2.​ Explain the role in Islam of traditions from other religions. Traditions in Islam are perceived as part of the God’s revelation and are sacred. Islam categorizes Christianism and Judaism as originally true but not complete. The Quran traditions are the final revelations. Oral and written traditions were conserved to describe God’s speaking. 3.​ How and why do Sunni and Shi‘a Muslims differ in their view of the succession to Muhammad? After the death of the first caliph Muhammad, the question of his succession led to serious debates. For the Sunnis, no one could ever take the place of the prophet Muhammad. So, they prefer to choose a caliph being the closest to the prophet. The choice was put into the male membership of Muhammad’s tribe (the Quraish) : the first one being Abu Bakr. The role of this caliph is to lead the administrative and political affairs of the Muslim world being obedient towards the Qur’an. On the other hand, the Shi’a muslims preferred Ali the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet. He could get the role of the imam (most important religious person for the Shi’as) getting the ‘spiritual abilities’. These abilities could be perpetuated thanks to a cycle of initiation. They disagree on the heir (héritier) of Muhammad. 4.​ Explain how decisions in Shari‘a, the Muslim legal system, are reached. Shari’a means voice, the path to follow to Muslims. It let Muslims know what is possible to do or not by following the Quran. That treats about almost everything in the public and private life. Scholars use reasoning to address modern issues with the Qur’an. The Shari’a depends also on the national consensus : Moroccan and Persian culture are different so as their religious laws. 5.​ How does Muslim doctrine on the Qur‘an demonstrate its huge importance to Islam? The Qu’ran is considered as the direct word of Allah transmitted to Muhammad through the angel Jibril. It must be treated with huge respect and memorized by Muslims. It is recited everyday during the prayer and is part of the Islamic law. 6.​ What is Sufism, and why is it inappropriate to refer to it as a ‘sect’ of Islam? Sufis are simply Muslims (Sunnis or Shi‘as) who seek intimacy with God through a discipline of spiritual purification and love with God. It is not a sect because it is a way to experience Islam : they are not a distinct group. 7.​ Explain tawhid, the Muslim doctrine of monotheism. Tawhid is the doctrine of believing in one and unique god. No other god is possible only Allah exists. This principle is essential and must be respected by all Muslims because it allows to recognize God as the all-powerful and all-knowing entity. It is opposed to the Shirk which is the fact to believe in diverse deities. 8.​ How far do the Five Pillars reflect Islam as the religion of a united community? The faith, the prayer, charity, the fasting (ramadan) and the pilgrimage form the Five Pillars of Islam. To become a Muslim, the Pillars must be respected. The Pillars are moral obligations that unify the Islam community because every muslim people respect it which represent the most important things to follow. For example, the prayer can be done collectively in the mosque or you share the period of the ramadan with the other Muslims. 9.​ Why is Mecca so important to Islam? Mecca is an Holy city in Islam : it is the place where Muhammad was born and lived. He received there the revelation of God. In this city, Islam started around 610 ce. Muslim people have to pray in the direction of it. They also must do their pilgrimage (the Hajj) where the believers can be purified of their sins. Nowadays, the Ka’ba is located there and is the most important place of Islam. 10.​Why do some Muslims today believe their religion to be incompatible with Western secularism? They believe in that because the Western secularism does not respect the Quran teachings. Moreover, religion and state are often part of the same system based on the law of the Sharia. Sikhism​ 1.​ Explain the role of Guru Nanak’s example in Sikhism. ​Guru Nanak after disappearing for a few days, returns explaining that there is no Hinduism and Muslims. He returns with a new religion. He shares his teachings after.​ ​ 2.​ Why does Sikhism reject asceticism?  For Sikhism to wait for the great Guru it takes a simple life with mediation and discipline. Asceticism is therefore completely inulin. The formula must be followed: ‘the Name, giving, and keeping clean’​ 3.​ Why is the Adi Granth so revered? The Adi Granth is the book issued by the authority of the Guru. It is very important in temple rituals. It is composed of the words of four gurus but also of hymns of non-Sikhs. This sacred book is written in a mixture of old Hindi and old Punjabi.​ ​ 4.​ Why does Sikhism reject the caste system? In Sikhism all human beings have a divine source. That is why there is no caste. Moreover, for them there is only one God. All the scriptures begin with the phrase "Ek Onkar" (one God).​ ​ 5.​ How have Hinduism and Islam influenced Sikhism? Hinduism-> concept en commun comme le karma, certaines pratique aussi et des symboles Islam-> monotheisme, rejet des idoles, langue et culture et egalité et justice sociale. Guru Nakak Guru Nanak a cherché à transcender les divisions entre hindouisme et islam, en mettant l’accent sur la spiritualité personnelle, la dévotion et le service à l’humanité (seva). Le sikhisme rejette les pratiques sectaires exclusives des deux religions (comme le pèlerinage obligatoire à la Mecque en islam ou les rituels complexes de l’hindouisme)  pour créer une voie universelle.​ ​ 6.​ How do Sikhs believe they can overcome chaurasi (the cycle of death and rebirth)? To avoid chaurasi the Sikhs must become Guru-oriented. They must also be honest heads of families based on divine faith and be for the equality of humans. They must follow the teachings of the gurus. ​ 7.​ How far was the Tenth Guru responsible for shaping Sikhism? Le dixième Guru a crée le Khalsa (l’élite du Guru) qui est un nouvel ordre. Après sa mort les autorité ont commencé à investir dans les écritures. IL existe un volume entier dédié à lui.​ 8.​ Explain the importance of the Khalsa in Sikhism. Représentant un ordre spirituel et militaire fondé par le dixième Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, en 1699. La création de la Khalsa a transformé le sikhisme en une communauté religieuse dotée d’une identité distincte et d’un engagement envers des idéaux élevés. La Khalsa a été fondée pour affirmer l'identité unique des Sikhs face aux persécutions religieuses et culturelles, notamment sous les empires moghols. Les membres de la Khalsa, appelés Khalsas Sikhs, adoptent les Cinq K (Kesh, Kangha, Kara, Kirpan, Kachera), qui symbolisent leur dévotion à la foi et leur distinction en tant que communauté.​ ​ 9.​ What factors are responsible for the tension between Sikhism and the Indian state in recent decades?  Les dernières décennies ont toutefois été marquées par des tensions entre l’expression politisée du sikhisme, qui est née du mouvement de réforme, et un leadership politique indien de plus en plus identifié avec le majoritarisme hindou. Quans l’inde appartenait aux britanniques des personneslaics essayer de faire regner l’harmonie dans le peuple et ont accuses les sikh d’etre la cause de toutes ses tensions. Ils ne se sont pas laisser daire et disaient souvent qu’ils n’etaient pas hindou. ​ 10.​How important is the Rehat Maryada to the development of Sikhism in recent decades? C’est le code de conduite officile du sikhism. Fournis une norme commune. Il aide à maintenir une identité. Il a clarifié les pratiques religieuses. C’était un grand soutient durant la diaspora. Protège des influences externes. Vision moderne comme la lutte contre les inégalités.