Relativism, Skepticism, Objectivism & Intuitionism PDF

Relativism & Skepticism, Objectivism & Intuitionism - Cultural relativism is the view that ethical and social standards reflect the cultural context from which they are derived. Cultural relativists uphold that cultures differ fundamentally from one another, and so do the moral frameworks that...

Relativism & Skepticism, Objectivism & Intuitionism - Cultural relativism is the view that ethical and social standards reflect the cultural context from which they are derived. Cultural relativists uphold that cultures differ fundamentally from one another, and so do the moral frameworks that structure relations within different societies. *Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one\'s own culture.* The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one\'s own culture. Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal. *Cultural relativism attempts to counter ethnocentrism* by promoting the understanding of cultural practices unfamiliar to other cultures. For example, it is a common practice for friends of the same-sex in India to hold hands while walking in public. Religious beliefs and arranged marriages are also examples of cultural relativism. There are practices in religion and marriage that are acceptable in some cultures but not in others. However, this does not qualify individuals to criticize each other\'s practices, and they tolerate them as they are. Cultural relativism argues that no culture is better than any other and all their beliefs are equally valid. The way that modern society is has made it possible for almost everything to be justified. These arguments were made by fictional Ima Relativist created by Harry Gensler. The concept of cultural relativism as we know and use it today was established as an analytic tool by German-American anthropologist Franz Boas in the early 20th century. Is Cultural Relativism good? Cultural relativism is good because it allows people to practice their beliefs and enjoy their cultural heritage or religious beliefs without having to fear or have fears of others for why they do what they do. Cultural relativism eliminates the rigidity that societies have in place regarding ethics, conduct, and reasoning. It also means that there are no actual definitions that are in place for a society. Cultural relativism promotes an individualistic perspective which governs how a person acts, thinks, and responds. *Ethnocentrism* is a theory opposite to cultural relativism. This idea consists of being able to judge another culture. Comparing cultures to one another. Decide whether one culture is better than another. Cultural Relativism, as it has been called, challenges our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. It says, in effect, that there is not such thing as universal. The weakness of cultural relativism is its propensity towards quietism which may compromise action to protect human rights. Cultural relativism requires an admission of humility and acceptance of differences in ethical practices. One of the strongest objections to relativism is the idea that if relativism is true, then there can be no such thing as social reform or moral progress. truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes, and nothing more. Because of this, ethicists believe that the concept of cultural relativism threatens the discipline of ethics since, if values are relative to a given culture, then this must mean that there are no universal moral absolutes by which the behavior of people can be judged. - **What is Skepticism?** Skepticism also spelled scepticism, in Western philosophy, the *attitude of doubting* knowledge claims set forth in various areas. Skeptics have challenged the adequacy or reliability of these claims by asking what principles they are based upon or what they actually establish. For instance, the police officer was skeptical that the driver, who was weaving in and out of traffic, only had two beers. Skepticism holds that one should refrain from making truth claims and avoid the postulation of final truths. *Types of Skepticism:* - *Common sense skepticism - -* natural and healthy form of skepticism that most of us employ on daily basis. - *Philosophical skepticism* - - the view that we know much less than we think we do or nothing at all. - *Absolute skepticism*. \-- this is the most extreme type of skepticism. *Are moral relativism and skepticism linked?* Other moral skeptics endorse cultural relativism, which is the view that rather than being relative to an individual\'s beliefs, morality is relative to culture. This is a radical view with many serious philosophical difficulties. - - **The name \"Objectivism\" derives from the idea that human knowledge and values are objective: they exist and are determined by the nature of reality, to be discovered by one\'s mind, and are not created by the thoughts one has.** **Objectivism is the philosophy or theory that the main objective of the human experience is to pursue personal happiness and respect other humans. An example of objectivism is the philosophy made known by author Ayn Rand.** **Objectivism holds that man has free will---the ability to think or not to think, to use reason or not to use it, to go by facts or to go by feelings. A person does not have to use reason; the choice is his to make.** **The most essential aspects of Objectivism can be expressed in four basic values: freedom, achievement, individualism, and reason. To understand Objectivism as a system, one needs to grasp what these values are and how they fit together.** *What are some examples of objectivism?* - a person who works hard on a farm his entire life to be completely self-sustaining; engaging in actions that will ideally lead to long-term happiness as opposed to short term pleasure; - a person who carves out a plan for the rest of her life that includes the principles of reason, purpose and self-esteem. Moral objectivism is the position that certain acts are objectively right or wrong, independent of human opinion.  It holds that there are objective, universal moral principles that are valid for all people. Louis Pojman proposes one such moral principle that he believes is binding upon all human beings: "It is morally wrong to torture people just for the fun of it." Another example is that everyone must keep their promises and honor contracts in order to live in a society. *The difference between objectivism and subjectivism* The objectivist can say that meaning is being studied objectively, while the subjectivist can say that a formerly inadequate method has been improved by the addition of subjective considerations, or even that subjective considerations had never been entirely eliminated from it. - ***Intuitionism*** **Intuition is the ability to understand something immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning. Intuitionism is the philosophical theory that basic truths are known intuitively. Basically, your intuition knows something because it is true. Universally, objectively, true. When you\'re a philosopher, looking for the fundamental sources of morality, that is a major claim to make.** **In metaethics, intuitionism is a form of cognitivism that holds that moral statements can be known to be true or false immediately through a kind of rational intuition.** When an intuitionist ponders a problem, the only things they must work with are their feelings, thoughts, and attitudes. Working with these entirely **subjective things** the intuitionist arrives at moral intuitions, which he then puts forward as **objective truths**. Moral intuitionism, this refers to the philosophical belief that there are objective moral truths in life and that human beings can understand these truths intuitively. With moral intuitionism, we mean strong, stable, immediate moral beliefs. These moral beliefs are strong insofar as they are held with confidence and resist counter-evidence (although strong enough counter evidence can sometimes overturn them). A theory that aligns with intuition is said to be more credible, while one that does not align is said to be less credible. But in other cases, philosophers suggest discarding intuition in favor of what theory prescribes. The trouble with these practices is knowing when to trust intuition and when to trust theory. With moral intuitionism, for instance, we might have an intuition that all people are to be treated fairly, that it is wrong to intentionally harm an innocent person for no reason or that all people are to be treated with dignity. These are beliefs that moral intuitionists claim to be self-evident.