Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual with AMSA Additions PDF

ALBERTA EDITION WESTERN CANADA MINE RESCUE MANUAL Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Alberta Edition Mine Rescue Manual including Alberta-specific information as of February 2018 This manuscript is for educational purposes only. Nothing herein is to be regarded as indicating approval or disapproval of any specific product or practice. October 27, 2016 Larry Ritchat Chair, Mine Rescue Subcommittee ARCS: 160-01 Alberta Mine Safety Association RE: AMSA to adopt Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Dear Larry, In response to your request, on behalf of the AMSA Mine Rescue sub-committee, to adopt the Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual as a base manual for training in mine rescue in Alberta, the BC Ministry of Energy & Mines, along with the other jurisdictions, approve this request. One of the early intentions of this manual was to standardize a document and share it with the other regions of Western Canada. Alberta & the Alberta Mine Safety Association are welcome to become a part of this effort, and are encouraged to participate in further development and revisions of the manual. Please note that this manual is a reference document to aid in emergency response training. All emergency response training in mines must comply with local legislation. Sincerely, Signed by Al Hoffman, P.Eng. Chief Inspector of Mines Ministry of Health, Safety and Mailing Address: PO Box Phone: 250 952 0793 Energy and Mines Permitting Branch 9320 Stn Prov Got 250-952-0793 Victoria, BC V8W 9N3 Fax: 250 952 0491 250-952-0491 Foreword Every mine has to maintain a mine rescue team to help ensure the safety of workers and property on mine sites throughout B.C., Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This manual has been crafted to demonstrate the basic equipment, procedures, practices, and principles that mine rescue trainees need to know before they respond to incidents at surface and underground mining operations. Mine Rescue teams have bravely responded to incidents and disasters throughout northern and western Canada for more than a century. It is through their training and practice that they have been able to come back safe and sound. Likewise, mine officials must also be familiar with their roles and responsibilities in the event of an emergency. Proper instruction must be complemented by individual and collective efforts to master the skills, equipment, and knowledge needed to execute a mine emergency response. This manual and training course represent the first steps you will take toward being able to answer that call. There are all sorts of incidents and emergencies that Mine Rescue teams can encounter, including electrical fires, gas leaks, avalanches, and motor vehicle accidents. Mine Rescue can be dangerous work, especially if it is not performed properly. Rescuers are responsible first for their safety and the safety of their team, but some responses will also require that they tend to casualties in need of assistance. In consulting the most up-to-date research as well as experts in government and industry, the committee who created this manual have endeavored to make certain that the information found in these pages is as reliable, applicable, and above all, safe as possible. Your Mine Rescue training will not end when you finish this manual and course. Being a part of a Mine Rescue team means committing to a practice regime with your fellow Mine Rescuers to establish the cohesion, communication, and trust needed to function in the stressful environment of an emergency response. At times you may be called upon to assist in responses at other mining operations or to emergencies off-site. Wherever your Mine Rescue training takes you, wear the “MINE RESCUE” sticker on your hat with the pride and responsibility that it deserves. Al Hoffman Bruce Milligan Peter Bengts Chief Inspector of Mines, Director, Chief Inspector of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Mines Occupational Health and Safety Worker’s Safety & British Columbia Yukon Workers' Compensation Compensation Commission Yukon Northwest Territories and Nunavut Larry Ritchat Emergency Response Director Alberta Mine Safety Association Contents Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................1-1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................ 1-2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING....................................................................... 1-2 REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING....................................................................................... 1-2 MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS................................................................................................................ 1-3 MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION................................................................................................................... 1-3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................................... 1-3 Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization......................................................................................................... 2-1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 2-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS.......................................................................................................................................... 2-2 THE MINE RESCUE TEAM...................................................................................................................... 2-2 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS.................................................................................................. 2-5 DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES.......................................................................................................... 2-5 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT................................................................................................... 2-7 FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE............................................................................................................................. 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS.....................................................................................................2-8 PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS......................................................................... 2-8 Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions................................................................................................... 3-1 OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................................. 3-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................. 3-2 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR..................................................................................................................... 3-4 ICE TRAVEL.............................................................................................................................................. 3-4 THERMAL STRESS.................................................................................................................................... 3-6 Chapter 4 Electrical Hazards................................................................................................................ 4-1 OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................................. 4-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................. 4-2 INJURIES CAUSED BY SHOCKS AND ELECTROCUTIONS........................................................................... 4-5 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS...................................................... 4-8 GUIDELINES FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES......................................................................................... 4-9 Chapter 5 Gases and Hazardous Atmospheres..................................................................................... 5-1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 5-2 i CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................. 5-2 NAME OF GAS.......................................................................................................................................... 5-5 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS DURING AND AFTER FIRES.............................................................................5-21 Chapter 6 Rescue Tools...................................................................................................................... 6-1 OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................................. 6-2 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS................................................................................................................. 6-2 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS........................................................................................................ 6-2 ROTATING TOOLS..................................................................................................................................... 6-3 PUSHING, PULLING, AND LIFTING TOOLS............................................................................................... 6-3 PRYING AND SPREADING TOOLS.............................................................................................................. 6-4 STRIKING TOOLS....................................................................................................................................... 6-4 CUTTING TOOLS....................................................................................................................................... 6-5 ENERGY SOURCES.................................................................................................................................... 6-5 HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE AND SPILL TOOLS........................................................................................ 6-6 FIRE APPLIANCES...................................................................................................................................... 6-6 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS.......................................................................................................................... 6-7 Chapter 7 Gas Detection Instruments.................................................................................................. 7-1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 7-2 SELECTING GAS DETECTION EQUIPMENT................................................................................................ 7-2 GAS DETECTOR TYPES.............................................................................................................................. 7-3 PRACTICAL SKILLS FOR GAS DETECTION.................................................................................................. 7-5 Chapter 8 Respiratory Protective Equipment...................................................................................... 8-1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 8-2 APPARATUS CONCEPTS............................................................................................................................ 8-3 SELF-RESCUERS........................................................................................................................................ 8-4 SELF-CONTAINED SELF-RESCUERS (SCSR)............................................................................................... 8-6 SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS............................................................................................. 8-8 CYLINDER TESTING AND CHARGING........................................................................................................ 8-9 Chapter 9 Oxygen Therapy.................................................................................................................. 9-1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 9-2 SAFE STORAGE, TRANPSORT, AND USE................................................................................................... 9-2 WHEN TO USE OXYGEN THERAPY............................................................................................................ 9-3 BENEFITS OF OXYGEN THERAPY.............................................................................................................. 9-3 ii OXYGEN THERAPY EQUIPMENT............................................................................................................. 9-4 INSPECTING CYLINDERS AND ASSEMBLING COMPONENTS................................................................... 9-8 ADMINISTERING OXYGEN....................................................................................................................... 9-8 SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE....................................................................................................................... 9-9 OXYGEN CYLINDER DURATION............................................................................................................... 9-9 Chapter 10 Fire................................................................................................................................. 10-1 OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................................... 10-2 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT................................................................................................... 10-2 FIRE BEHAVIOUR................................................................................................................................... 10-3 CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................... 10-6 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES..................................................................................................................... 10-9 PHASES OF FIRE..................................................................................................................................... 10-10 HAZARDS OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT........................................................................................................ 10-11 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS............................................................................................................................. 10-13 VENTILATION......................................................................................................................................... 10-17 EQUIPMENT FIRES................................................................................................................................. 10-18 BLEVE (BOILING LIQUID EXPANDING VAPOUR EXPLOSION)................................................................. 10-18 Chapter 11 Rope Rescue................................................................................................................... 11-1 OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................................... 11-2 PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT.................................................................................................. 11-3 ROPE AND WEBBING............................................................................................................................. 11-4 HARDWARE........................................................................................................................................... 11-7 KNOTS, BENDS, AND HITCHES............................................................................................................... 11-11 HARNESSES........................................................................................................................................... 11-15 ANCHORS.............................................................................................................................................. 11-35 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES................................................................................................................. 11-40 BELAYS................................................................................................................................................... 11-46 RAPPELLING.......................................................................................................................................... 11-50 Chapter 12 Underground Operations................................................................................................ 12-1 OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................................................... 12-2 A GUIDE FOR PLANNING MINE EMERGENCY PROCEDURES................................................................. 12-2 FIRE CONTROL AND VENTILATION........................................................................................................ 12-4 INSTRUMENTS USED IN VENTILATION WORK..................................................................................... 12-8 MINE DRAWINGS................................................................................................................................. 12-9 UNDERGROUND MINE FIRES — CONTROL AND SUPPRESSION........................................................... 12-11 Chapter 13 Operations Skills............................................................................................................. 13-1 OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................................... 13-2 COMMAND AND CONTROL.................................................................................................................. 13-2 COMMUNICATION............................................................................................................................... 13-8 USE OF PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS............................................................................................. 13-10 SEARCH AND RESCUE........................................................................................................................... 13-11 STANDARD SEARCH PROCEDURE......................................................................................................... 13-12 CASUALTY MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................... 13-14 EXTRICATION FROM VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT............................................................................... 13-17 CONFINED SPACE................................................................................................................................. 13-21 CONFINED SPACE RESCUE.................................................................................................................... 13-24 SUPPLEMENTARY RESCUE TECHNIQUES.............................................................................................. 13-25 Chapter 14 Helicopter Safety............................................................................................................ 14-1 HELICOPTER SAFETY............................................................................................................................ 14-2 SETTING UP LANDING ZONE................................................................................................................ 14-2 HELICOPTER ARRIVAL.......................................................................................................................... 14-4 GROUND OPERATIONS........................................................................................................................ 14-4 OPERATIONS INSIDE THE HELICOPTER................................................................................................ 14-5 Appendix.......................................................................................................................................... 15-1 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 1 Introduction 1-1 INTRODUCTION This manual is designed to provide basic training in the rescue procedures to be followed in the event of an incident requiring emergency response at a surface or underground mining operation. The mining laws of all jurisdictions in Western Canada require that trained, properly equipped mine rescue teams be maintained at all surface and underground mining operations. It is the management’s responsibility to appoint a qualified person as a trainer for mine rescue training and to ensure that all mine rescue team members practice as a team. The appointed rescue trainer is responsible for maintaining a log of dates, times, training material, and equipment used at practice sessions. All records must be signed off by employers and trainees. A properly planned training agenda should be constructed so as to achieve the maximum training results for the allotted training time, as stipulated by local legislation. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MINE RESCUE TRAINING The fundamental principles of mine rescue training are, in order of importance:  Ensuring the safety of self and rescue team  Endeavouring to rescue or ensuring the safety of trapped or injured workers  Protection of the mine property from further damage  Rehabilitation of the affected work area and salvage of equipment Through training, mine rescue teams will become familiar with:  Mine rescue equipment  Mining equipment that may be useful in an emergency (cranes, loaders, scoop trams, etc.)  Hazards involved in mine rescue work (toxic and flammable gases, electricity, rock falls, etc.)  The most common dangerous occurrences, such as those involving fire, machinery, or electricity REQUIREMENTS FOR MINE RESCUE TRAINING Mine rescue work is physically and mentally demanding, and at times dangerous. Members of mine rescue teams must not only have an intimate knowledge of their equipment but must also be physically sound and fit to perform strenuous work while wearing a breathing apparatus. In addition, they must maintain good judgement and temperament. They should be selected carefully and must receive thorough training. Frequent additional training and instruction should be given in an irrespirable atmosphere to ensure that both crew and equipment are in condition to respond to an emergency. Training exercises involving a recovery problem should be conducted occasionally. Many hours of training and practice are needed to develop a competent mine rescue team that can work effectively with other teams to accomplish rescue objectives in the event of a mine emergency. It is also most important that mine officials receive periodic instruction and training in the duties they must perform, both individually and collectively, should an incident arise requiring a mine rescue response. They must know where tools, equipment and materials can be obtained, both on the mine site and from outside sources. 1-2 All supervisory staff should be instructed that, in the absence of higher authority, they must take charge, and act on matters requiring immediate attention. They must notify all persons required to assist at a disaster, particularly the regulator responsible for the district in which the mine is located, the mine rescue team, and any other help that may be available. MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS Candidates for mine rescue training must meet the following minimum requirements:  Minimum age of 18 years  Speak, read, and write English*  Be in good physical and mental condition*  Be familiar with mining conditions, practices, hazards and equipment  Have no perforated eardrums (tympanic membrane)*  Hold a valid Medical First Responder Certificate with spinal immobilization  Clean-shaven, with no facial hair to interfere with the seal on the breathing apparatus.  Hold any additional certifications as required by your jurisdiction Whether a candidate is trained in underground mine rescue, surface mine rescue, or first aid, the applicant must be mentally and physically capable and prepared to render assistance whenever called upon to do so. * = Subject to the discretion of the mine manager MINE RESCUE CERTIFICATION The Basic Underground or Surface Mine Rescue Certificate will be issued to candidates who successfully complete the training course. The candidate must attain a grade of 70% upon examination to pass. Continuous participation in mine rescue service while maintaining the above minimum requirements will ensure that the certification does not expire. A rescuer may apply for an advanced certificate after five years of service in addition to fulfilling further competencies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Mine Rescue Manual has evolved from integrating revised editions of the General Underground Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1977̻2) and the Surface Mine Rescue Manual (British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1981̻4). The manual was compiled by Mike Barber and Haley Kuppers, in cooperation with a steering committee drawn from the coal- and metal mining industries in British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. The compilers gratefully acknowledge the contribution made by members of the steering committee in 2013–14, specifically: Jerrold Jewsbury British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines Gerry Wong Teck Highland Valley Copper Nathan Pitre Diavik Diamond Mines (2012) Inc. Lex Lovatt Workers Safety and Compensation Commission of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Ron Ratz Yukon Workers Compensation Health and Safety Board 1-3 Considerable assistance in creating and reviewing content for the manual was provided by:  East Kootenay Mining Industry Safety Association (B.C.)  North/Central/South Mine Rescue (B.C.)  Northern Mine Safety Forum  Yukon Mine Producers Group The manual also draws on a number of earlier publications, including:  The Handbook of Training in Mine Rescue and Recovery Operations, Ontario Ministry of Labour  Mine Rescue Crisis Response Manual, Yukon Territorial Government  Occupational First Aid Manual, British Columbia Workers’ Compensation Board  Electrical Safety for Policemen and Firemen, B.C. Hydro  Rigging for Rescue, Dynamic Rescue Systems  Operation Recharge Inspection and Maintenance Manual – Cartridge Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers, ANSUL  Manitoba Mine Rescue Training and Reference Manual, Manitoba Ministry of Mineral Resources  Alberta Mine Rescue Manual, Alberta Mine Safety Association  Saskatchewan Mine Emergency Response Program, Saskatchewan Labour Occupational Health and Safety  The Canadian Electrical Code, Canadian Standards Association  Various publications of American Congress of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), National Institute for Occupational Safety, and Health (NIOSH), Environment Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), and Health Canada A number of photos in this manual are used courtesy of the manufacturers and rights holders, including:  Draeger Canada  vRigger  AnimatedKnots.Com  Ferno Canada  Canadian Safety  Carleton Rescue  CMC Rescue  Equipment  Gastec Biomarine Inc. Scott Safety  Industrial Scientific  MSA Canada Honeywell Analytics O-Two These sources are gratefully acknowledged. This manual is intended to cover basic mine rescue principles, techniques, and equipment. Familiarize yourself with site-specific procedures, manufacturer’s instructions, and other training programs available to supplement this course. 1-4 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 2 Mine Rescue Organization 2-1 OBJECTIVES Before learning the skills necessary to complete mine rescue operations, trainees must understand how teams and rescue operations are organized. Upon completing this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate competency in:  Mine Rescue Team Structure  Communications by Team Members  Decision-making Processes  Personal Protective Equipment requirements  Fresh Air Bases/Zones  First Response to Hazardous Materials  Physical/Emotional Stress in Critical Incidents CONCEPTS AND DEFINTIONS A Mine Emergency Response Plan (MERP) is the company’s guide to all procedures and plans of action in the case of an emergency on-site. This plan describes roles and responsibilities for management, rescue teams, and support personnel. An Incident Management System, such as Incident Command System (ICS), allows for command, control, and co-ordination during emergency response. The incident management system is a component of a MERP. THE MINE RESCUE TEAM Mine rescue teams are called upon to respond to many different kinds of emergencies. Time will be an important factor, and the following practices will help teams work efficiently in an emergency: 1. The first and foremost is team structure. This leads to successful efforts in disciplines such as extrication techniques, first aid methods and firefighting procedures that require a team effort. 2. The team should plan and practice basic procedures prior to an emergency situation. The Captain The Captain is the No. 1 member on the team. Above all, the Captain must be a competent leader who has the confidence and respect of team members. The Captain must be in good physical and mental condition and experienced in every aspect of emergency response. The Captain’s responsibilities include:  Ensuring team is response-ready  Ensuring breathing apparatus and auxiliary equipment are response-ready  Ensuring safe operation of all rescue equipment  Communicating within the emergency response structure  Knowledge of all facilities at the mine and relevant fire, explosive, electrical, mechanical, and chemical hazards  Knowledge of ventilation principles  Knowledge of mine gases  Directing and assisting the work of team members at the scene  Determining and inspecting all aspects of a rescue operation  Establishing and maintaining incident scene security and control 2-2 The Vice-Captain The Vice Captain of a surface mine rescue team is the No. 2 member. In underground teams, the Vice- Captain is the No. 5 member. In the event that the Captain is unable to perform the assigned responsibilities, the Vice-Captain must take control of the team and therefore must have the same qualifications as the Captain. Vice-Captains are also responsible for monitoring members of the team and warning the Captain if any member shows signs of distress or fatigue during a response. They must also make certain that team members rotate while carrying a stretcher over distances to prevent fatigue. Team Members A standard mine rescue team has six members including the Captain. The sixth member of an underground team is the Co-ordinator and provides direction from the surface incident command centre to the underground team Captain. All team members are responsible for recognizing hazards and relaying that information to other team members. The team must be rested regularly and be constantly observed for signs of distress in any member. Work must be distributed as evenly as possible among all members. Team Captains will delegate duties among the other team members, such as:  Exploring affected area of the mine  Rope work and rigging  Firefighting  First Aid  Extrication Teams may add members during a response based on their requirements or the members’ specific skill set. Any additional team members must have a number assigned to them in sequence beyond the six original members. Mutual Aid Large incidents may require assistance from other mines or emergency agencies. This collaboration is known as mutual aid and is a component of a MERP. When collaborating with mine rescue teams, it is imperative to follow the same numbering format for team designations. This will ensure that communications between incident management and each responding team are aligned with the MERP and that all responsibilities are assigned in an orderly manner. If extra personnel are added to a team, each rescuer will be assigned team numbers continuing from the basic six (team member 7, 8, 9, etc.). Mine Rescue Unit The mine rescue unit consists of a minimum of three mine rescue teams summoned to a mine disaster. If the operation extends beyond six hours, additional teams must be called in. To reduce fatigue, the teams rotate to allow one team at work, one team on hand as backup, and the third team at rest. Typical rotations for a three-, six-, and nine-team units are as follows: Active Team (Max. 2 hrs.) Back-up Team Team at Rest A-team B-team C-team B-team C-team A-team C-team A-team B-team 2-3 Fig 2.1: This table shows a rotation of mine rescue teams in a six-team arrangement. The arrangement allows for each rotation to have six hours on duty (two hours active, two hours standby and two hours reserve) followed by six hours of rest. DATE: TIME TEAM DESCRIPTION # 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY 2 STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 5 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 6 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: Fig. 2.2: This table shows a rotation of Mine Rescue teams in a nine-team arrangement. With a nine-team rotation, the rest time will be extended to match the teams deployed to the mine emergency. DATE: TIME DESCRIPTION TEAM # 1 ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 2 STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 3 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 4 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE STAND BY 5 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE RESERVE 6 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 7 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 8 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE 9 RESERVE STAND BY ACTIVE SIGNED: 2-4 COMMUNICATION BY TEAM MEMBERS All members of a mine rescue team must observe strict discipline and must obey all directions given to them by the Team Captain. Primary communication is done via electronic devices, such as phones or intrinsically safe radios where required. Surface team members should all carry whistles for secondary communication. On underground teams, the Captain and the Vice-Captain will both carry a horn, bell, whistle, or use other site-specific methods or devices. A standard set of signals has been established. Standard Code of Signals One To advance if stopped; to stop if in motion. Two To rest. Three (Distress) This signal will often be given by the Vice-Captain as he is observing the team members during travel and will be first to notice signs of distress. Four (Attention) At this signal, all team members will look at the person giving the signal and receive further instructions Five (Retreat) At this signal, the team will immediately retreat in the direction from which they have come. The Vice-Captain (underground) may lead the team in retreat for short distances through areas already explored, but should not lead the team into unexplored areas. As soon as circumstances permit, the Captain should resume the responsibility of leading the team. DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES Mine rescue responsibilities can be very demanding. Mine rescue members may be the first trained personnel to arrive at the incident scene. They are required to:  Control the scene  Ensure the MERP is initiated  Ensure the safety of self and team, casualties, and bystanders  Assist with casualty extrication and first aid  Fight fires  Control chemical spills Response and Size Up Response begins when a rescue team is alerted to an incident. It involves safely travelling to and arriving at the incident scene, then staging and securing equipment and vehicles. Response elements include:  Preparation: Ensuring equipment, including PPE, is in its designated location; familiarity with facilities, response procedures, and pre-incident plans  Method of alert/notification: Alarms, two-way radio, telephone, pager  Establish communication within the rescue team and between team and command structure  Safe travel to incident: Seatbelts, route, site specific traffic rules, exiting the vehicle  Arrival at the scene: o Accountability: Under the command structure, account for the responding rescue team members first then for all personnel at the incident scene. o Freelancing: Acting independently of command instruction is unacceptable and must not be tolerated. 2-5 Identify the Problem Size up is a systematic process of gathering information and situational evaluation that continues throughout the operation. Size up is essential to accomplish a safe and efficient rescue operation. There are four parts to size up: 1. Information gathered from the initial call: o Nature and location of emergency o Number of people/injuries involved o Weather conditions o Time of day o Equipment involved and access to the scene 2. Details observed en route: o Power blackouts o Smoke in the direction of the emergency o Traffic (unusual flow or congestion) and bystanders 3. Details observed at the scene: o Signs of hazardous conditions observed while establishing perimeter o Confirm / compare observations to information given in the initial call o Gasoline or fuel, chemical release or spill o Location of casualties o Actions that may have been taken by people already at the scene 4. Information gathered during size up is either factual (known or confirmed) or probable (assumptions made based on situation). For example, building occupancy based on time of day would be classified as probable. Hazard assessment involves identifying and evaluating hazards that may be encountered during the rescue operation. These hazards include:  Fire  Hazardous atmospheres (e.g., chemical hazards, toxic gases, oxygen displacement)  Energy sources (e.g., electrical, gas, nuclear)  Physical (e.g., structure, traffic, topography)  Biological  Environmental  Evaluate all influencing factors (e.g., time, location, environment, weather) Formulate an objective based on known information and resources  Determine what resources are required to accomplish the task (e.g., offensive or defensive)  Risk-based decision-making based on the fundamental principles of mine rescue Select one or more alternatives from the available options  Choose priorities based on the task and the resources available. Take appropriate action  Conduct all activities in a manner that ensures the safety of team members, casualties, and bystanders. Analyze results  Continuous process throughout the response  Be prepared to choose an alternative action if results are unsatisfactory. 2-6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT The environment in which mine rescue teams perform their duties demands that they be provided with the appropriate personal protective equipment. The provision and use of appropriate protective equipment will not, by themselves, assure individual safety. All protective equipment components have limitations that must be recognized so that users will not overextend their range of protection. Extensive training in the care, use, and maintenance of protective equipment is essential to assure that it will provide optimum protection. All members should be aware of the type of equipment needed for different situations and know where to find it. All equipment used must meet relevant health and safety legislation, standards, and regulations.  Head protection  Eye and face protection  Hearing protection  Respiratory protection  Hand protection  Foot protection  Protective clothing  Specialized equipment and tools (e.g., chainsaw chaps, extrication tools) FRESH-AIR BASE/ZONE A fresh air base/zone is an area in which good respirable air has been established and can be maintained indefinitely. It is the point of departure for the mine rescue team and no one should proceed beyond the fresh air base/zone without wearing respiratory protection. In choosing the base/zone, consideration should be given to providing the following:  A clean area with good lighting  A safe location as close to the incident as possible  An area for briefing and debriefing mine rescue teams  Adequate space to perform the necessary work  Necessary tools and supplies to carry out the work at hand For underground fresh-air bases, consideration should also be given to make sure that:  The travel way from the base to surface must always be assured of good air.  Underground-to-surface communication is uninterrupted. 2-7 FIRST REPSONSE TO HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Rescue members should be competent in site-specific response procedures. In the event of any incident involving hazardous materials, rescuers can refer to:  The Emergency Response Guidebook for Incidents Involving Hazardous Materials  Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or Information Sheets provided by the manufacturer for all products on-site  CANUTEC (Canadian Transport Emergency Centre, a 24-hour national emergency response advisory service) and WISER (Wireless Information System for Emergency Responders)  On-site expertise PHYSICAL/EMOTIONAL STRESS IN CRITICAL INCIDENTS A critical incident is an event that is outside the range of usual human experience and is psychologically traumatic to the person. Critical incidents may produce a wide range of stress reactions, which can appear immediately at the scene, a few hours later or within a few days of the event. Stress reactions usually occur in four different categories:  Cognitive (thinking)  Physical (body)  Emotional (feelings)  Behavioural (actions) The more reactions experienced, the greater the impact on the individual. The longer the reactions last, the more potential there is for permanent harm. These stresses can cause a wide variety of reactions: Category Symptoms Cognitive Poor concentration Memory problems Poor attention span Difficulty with calculations Indecision Slowed problem solving Emotional Loss of emotional control Feeling lost or overwhelmed Depression Anxiety/Fear Guilt Grief Physical Muscle tremors Chest pains Gastrointestinal distress Difficulty breathing Headaches Elevated blood pressure Behavioural Excessive silence Atypical behaviour Withdrawal from contact Sleep disturbance Change in eating habits Change in work habits These conditions result from the effects of the body’s chemical emergency response system. Following the completion of a mine rescue emergency response, mine rescue teams must hold a debriefing. A Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) or other counselling procedures should be conducted with all personnel directly involved in a Critical Incident. The debriefing should be held immediately at the end of the emergency response and be facilitated by qualified professionals. 2-8 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 3 Environmental Conditions 3-1 OBJECTIVES Mine rescue teams should be aware of the special dangers associated with environmental conditions. This chapter will provide a basic understanding of:  Avalanche terms, concepts, and equipment  Ice travel  Thermal stress CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS Mines operating in avalanche-prone areas must develop an avalanche emergency response plan tailored to their mine. Mine rescue personnel may be required to perform emergency response activities that expose them to avalanche hazards. This chapter is intended to only provide basic avalanche awareness. A qualified avalanche safety officer must be identified, consulted, and lead the safe emergency response in an active avalanche situation. The avalanche safety officer must conduct an avalanche risk assessment and establish active avalanche safety measures prior to planning emergency operations. An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface that can occur at any time provided the right conditions are present. Avalanches have three main parts:  Starting zone (point of origin): Where the unstable snow first breaks away. An avalanche path may have several starting zones. Characteristics of starting zones include: incline, slope aspect, exposure to wind, elevation, exposure to sun, natural ground condition.  Track (zone of transition): Below the starting zone, where the avalanche accelerates and typically reaches maximum destructive potential. It will have the potential to overrun terrain features and previous avalanche tracks. Avalanche areas can contain one or more tracks. These tracks may be poorly or clearly defined.  Run-out zone: Where the avalanche decelerates and finally comes to rest. It can be identified as a zone where the bulk of the snow is deposited. Avalanches may occur anywhere given the following conditions:  Geography, such as the natural topography of the area, engineered land forms, and slope orientation.  Snow accumulates on a moderate to steep slope (30°–45°). Avalanches rarely start on slopes steeper than 45° as snow sloughs off continuously rather than accumulating.  Snow conditions, such as: o Snow pack (accumulation) o Mass o Layers of snow and bonding between facet layers Fig 3.1 Slope steepness and avalanches o Environmental effects: Variation in temperature, wind, humidity 3-2  An external event that triggers the slide. These can be: o Natural: New snow, transported snow (wind), temperature changes, sun, rain, thawing and animals. o Human: Explosives, working on a slope, working below a slope, mobile equipment, and recreational activities. o Trigger points: Snow conditions, shallow areas/variable depth snow packs, points of weakness (e.g., trees, rock outcrops) may all contribute to the development of avalanche conditions. Two types of avalanche are commonly recognized: Loose Snow Avalanches may consist of dry powder snow or wet snow. Dry snow avalanches are most common in winter after storms and rare in spring or summer. Wet snow avalanches consist of heavy, wet, sun-heated or rain- rotted snow or wet new snow and are most common in spring and summer, particularly on south-facing slopes. These avalanches:  Start from a point  Are set in motion progressively  Require snow with poor cohesion, similar to that of dry Sand  Are usually confined to surface layers and therefore  relatively small Slab Avalanche Slab Avalanches occur when a slab of fairly cohesive layers of snow, poorly bonded to the snow underneath, breaks off along a fracture line. These avalanches are by far the most dangerous. They are set in motion simultaneously, over a large area and may start in either shallow or deep snow layers. Safety in Avalanche Zones The successful rescue of a person buried in an avalanche very often depends upon actions taken by unburied survivors. Teams performing rescue operations in an avalanche area must be mentally prepared for the possibility that they too may be overtaken by an avalanche. If crossing an avalanche track cannot be avoided, take the following precautions:  Select the shortest possible route high on the slope or low in the run-out zone  Plan an escape route.  Wear mitts and hats. Tighten clothing and smaller packs. Loosen larger packs in case they need to be quickly removed.  Assign a spotter at the top and bottom of the track and agree on a warning signal.  Cross quickly. If the crossing is narrow, one person crosses at a time. Otherwise, maintain space between rescuers to minimize the risk of exposure to an avalanche track. 3-3 AVALANCHE RESCUE GEAR Probe, Avalanche transceiver (beacon), and Shovel: These three items work together and are the minimum required equipment for every avalanche rescuer. For proper use of avalanche rescue gear, refer to manufacturer’s guidelines. L-R: Probe, Shovel, Transceiver (bottom) ICE TRAVEL Some mining operations in remote northern locations are accessed by ice roads built on frozen lakes and rivers. Prior to travelling on ice The thickness of the ice must be tested frequently in various locations. The smallest thickness is what is used to determine the strength of the ice. Table 3.1 indicates the weight that will be supported by varying thicknesses of clear blue lake-ice, provided the load remains in motion.  Type of ice: o River or lake (movement of water beneath ice). Clear blue river-ice, with moving water beneath it, is not as strong as lake-ice. Loads should be reduced by at least 15% o Clear or natural ice (black or blue hue). This is considered the strongest form of ice. o Slush ice (white hue) is snow saturated with water. It is commonly found as new ice floating after a heavy snowfall. It is much weaker than clear blue lake-ice.  Cracks in ice may affect its ability to support a load. While traveling on ice  As a vehicle travels on ice it creates a resonance wave in the underlying water. The weight and speed of the vehicle, as well as the depth of the water, influence the size and speed of the wave. The resonance wave can affect the strength of the ice, potentially resulting in a blowout, or an ice failure.  Unless otherwise posted, the speed limit on ice roads is 25 km/h for a loaded vehicle and 35 km/h for an empty vehicle. 3-4 The following table shows the maximum allowable mass of a vehicle in motion for ice of various thicknesses. Gold’s Formula for determining the maximum allowable mass is: M = 4 X h2 where M is the mass of the vehicle (kg) and h is the thickness of the ice (cm) Ice Thickness – Clear Blue Lake Ice Ice Thickness (cm) Capacity (kg) Ice Thickness (cm) Capacity (kg) Ice Thickness (cm) Capacity (kg) 2.5 25 37.5 5,625 75 22,500 3.5 49 40 6,400 77.5 24,025 5 100 42.5 7,225 80 25,600 7.5 225 45 8,100 82.5 27,225 10 400 47.5 9,025 85 28,900 12.5 625 50 10,000 87.5 30,625 15 900 52.5 11,025 90 32,400 17.5 1,225 55 12,100 92.5 34,225 20 1,600 57.5 13,225 95 36,100 22.5 2,025 60 14,400 97.5 38,025 25 2,500 62.5 15,625 100 40,000 27.5 3,025 65 16,900 102.5 42,025 30 3,600 67.5 18,225 105 44,100 32.5 4,225 70 19,600 107.5 46,225 35 4,900 72.5 21,025 110 48,400 Table 3.1 – Ice Strength 3-5 THERMAL STRESS Thermal stress refers to a range of physiological reactions to adverse temperature conditions. There are many factors that contribute to these stresses. Mine rescuers must be able to recognize and adequately respond to these conditions. Hypothermia is a condition of lowered internal body-core temperature (exposure sickness). Failure to recognize symptoms of hypothermia is the leading cause of death for people in the outdoors. Hypothermia is caused by overexposure to a cold environment and can develop very quickly if proper precautions are not taken. Hypothermia results from chilling by cold, wind, or water such that the body loses heat faster than it can produce it. Factors contributing to the development of hypothermia include:  Inadequate clothing  Alcohol or drugs in the body  Wetness (perspiration, rain) Hypothermia and Water Immersion  Exhaustion, dehydration, and lack If water Exhaustion or Expected survival of nutrition temperature (C) is Unconsciousness time  Wind and water 0 < 15 minutes 15–45 minutes  Temperature 1–5 15–30 minutes 30–90 minutes  Duration of exposure 5–10 30–60 minutes 1–3 hours 10–15 1–2 hours 1–6 hours Symptoms of Hypothermia 15–20 2–7 hours 2–40 hours Visible symptoms indicate the onset of 20–25 3–12 hours 3 hours–indefinitely hypothermia. Its advance is marked by 25–30 Indefinitely Indefinitely recognizable stages. Core Stage Temperature Signs & Symptoms (C) Mild 37.2–36.1 Normal, shivering can begin Hypothermia 36.1–35.0 Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with hands, shiver can be mild to severe, hands numb Moderate 35.0–33.9 Shivering, intense, lack of muscle coordination becomes apparent, movements Hypothermia slow and labored, stumbling pace, mild confusion, may appear alert. Use sobriety test: if unable to walk a 30 foot straight line, the person is hypothermic. 33.9–32.2 Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia starts to appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands, stumbles frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn. Severe 32.2–30.0 Shivering stops, exposed skin blue of puffy, muscle coordination very poor, Hypothermia inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behavior, but may be able to maintain posture and appearance of awareness 30.0–27.8 Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse and respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation 27.8–25.6 Unconscious, heart beat and respiration erratic, pulse may not be palpable 25.6–23.9 Pulmonary oedema, cardiac and respiratory failure, death. Death may occur before this temperature is reached. 3-6 Bodily Heat Loss The head and neck are the most critical heat-loss areas. Other body areas have high rates of heat loss while a subject is holding still in cold water. Infrared pictures show that the sides of the chest (where there is little muscle or fat) are the major routes for heat loss from the warm chest cavity. The groin area also loses much heat due to the large blood vessels near the surface. If an effort is made to conserve body heat, these regions deserve special attention. Fig 3.2: This infrared image of a body shows high-heat areas (red) and low-heat areas (blue) Cold Water Survival Techniques Mine rescuers that work near water require personal floatation devices (PFD). The onset of hypothermia is much quicker for people immersed in cold water. These two techniques can extend predicted survival times: H.E.L.P. (Heat Escape Lessening Position) This technique for cold water survival protects the parts of the body that lose heat fastest. It increases predicted survival time by up to 50%. This position requires a floatation device that maintains upper-body buoyancy. Huddle Position Predicted survival time can be increased by up to 50% if survivors huddle together. In this position, the sides of the survivors’ chests are held close together to prevent heat loss. In cold water ( 2,000mA Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe burns. Death is probable. Any electrical hazards must be controlled before approaching a casualty. Electrical energy casualties will require prompt and appropriate medical treatment. Factors Affecting Severity of Injury It is the current (amperage) that kills or injures. But the voltage, which pushes the current through the body, also has an important effect. Persons exposed to household voltages may suffer a muscle spasm and become locked-on to the electrical source until the current is turned off, or until they are dragged clear by the weight of their body falling away from the contact. Relatively long periods of contact with low voltage current cause many electrical fatalities. At very high voltages, such as from power lines, the casualty is often quickly blown clear of the circuit. This results in less internal damage, such as heart failure, but serious surface burns where the current enters and leaves the body. Exposure to a large electric arc can result in injury from the intense heat or from ultraviolet rays, which can cause serious eye damage. Path of Pressure Degree of electricity Length of of body skin Current Voltage Frequency AC/DC through exposure against resistance the body source 4-5 Special Considerations for Electrical Emergencies Combustible Materials Fires involving electrical equipment often result from the presence of combustible materials. For example, most fires that break out in electrical generating plants originate in fuel systems, oil systems, flammable gaseous atmospheres, combustible dust, accumulated waste material, or in buildings constructed of combustible material. Faulty Electrical Equipment Electricity is safe in normal operating conditions. However, hazards are created when electrical equipment or wires have become faulty due to:  Wear or other deterioration  Improper installation  Inadequate maintenance  Improper use  Damage or breakage  Lightning Any one of these factors may cause arcing or overheating of electrical equipment. Substation and Generator Fires Substations and generating facilities contain transformers, large quantities of oil, energized electrical equipment and, in some cases, cylinders of compressed gas. Some older transformers still in service might contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), many of which release toxic by-products when heated. Upon arrival at a substation or generator fire, rescuers should stand ready to protect adjacent properties. Authorized personnel will inform rescuers when the substation has been made electrically safe. Once electrical energy isolation is completed and locked out, rescuers can then proceed to extinguish the fire. Electrical Arc Flash Hazard An arc flash hazard can exist when energized electrical conductors or circuit parts are exposed or are within equipment in a guarded or enclosed condition. The hazard is present when a person is using electrical equipment improperly, or when someone breaches the safe limits of approach. Under normal operating conditions, enclosed energized equipment that has been properly installed and maintained should not pose an arc flash hazard. 4-6 Vehicles in Contact with Live Wires Emergency Situation Action to be taken by emergency personnel Do not touch any part of the vehicle. You could be A fallen wire lies under a vehicle with electrocuted, even if you are wearing rubber gloves. occupants… Instruct occupants to stay where they are until electrical crews arrive. Instruct the operator to move the vehicle clear of the wire, and clear of any pools of water which may be energized by the live wire. The operator is unhurt and can move the Make sure you are not in a position to be injured if vehicle… the wire springs up after being released when the vehicle moves. Make sure no one else is standing in a dangerous location. Do not touch any part of the vehicle. Instruct A fallen wire lies across a vehicle with occupants to stay where they are until electrical occupants… crews arrive. If the operator is injured and cannot move the Instruct the operator to stay in the vehicle until vehicle… electrical crews arrive. Direct contact with power lines is not necessary to pose an arcing hazard as power can arc from the lines to a crane or other piece of equipment. 4-7 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ENCOUNTERED BY SPECIFIC WORK GROUPS Work Groups Hazards Photo Welders Responders should know all welders use electrical systems to “Weld, Cut, or Braze”. They must be aware of the electrical hazards and take positive steps to eliminate and/or mitigate those hazards. Crane Contact with overhead power lines is a major cause Operators of fatalities in the industry. Electricity can travel from a power line to a worker touching any part of the crane or the load. Haul Trucks Tires can explode during or after contact with power and Other lines / lightning. Heavy If a vehicle contacts overhead power lines there may Equipment be a massive electrical current flowing through the vehicle and its tires: This can cause the tires to explode on contact or could cause the tires to start burning inside. Rescue teams must consider their approach angle, safe distances, and the size of the tire. This creates a build-up of gases and heat which could cause the tire to explode at a later time, even as much as 24 hours after the incident. The resulting explosion could potentially injure persons in the proximity with flying debris. The vehicle should be isolated for a period of time at a safe distance to avoid injury. Ground Buried power and communication lines pose a Engagement hazard to operators of equipment used during Tools trenching and excavation activities. Operators need (excavators, to be aware of the hazards posed by penetration of dozers, energized power lines and take positive steps to graders, etc.) eliminate the hazard before digging. 4-8 GUIDELINES FOR ELECTRICAL EMERGENCIES Always assume that all electrical wires and equipment are energized until proven otherwise. Mine rescue teams must ensure that energy isolation is complete prior to conducting rescue operations.  When arriving at the incident scene, stage response vehicles at a distance that avoids exposure to electrical hazards.  Control the incident scene to eliminate unauthorized access and prevent exposure to electrical hazards.  Wait for authorized personnel to isolate power. Use lock-out/tag-out devices when working near energy sources as per site-specific isolation procedures.  Guard against electrical shocks, burns, and eye injuries from electrical arcs.  Establish an exclusion zone equal to the length of the distance between two poles (i.e., one span) in all directions from downed power lines.  Be aware that damaged electrical lines can move significant distances by themselves when energized or as a result of the wire’s coil memory.  Be aware that other wires may have been weakened and may fall at any time.  Exercise caution while raising or lowering ladders, elevated work platforms, and booms near power lines.  Do not touch any vehicle or apparatus that is in contact with electrical wires.  Do not use solid or straight water streams on fires in energized electrical equipment.  Be aware that wire-mesh, chain-link, barbed wire, and steel-rail fences can be energized by wires outside of your field of view.  Where wires are down, heed any tingling sensation, as this indicates a ground gradient. 4-9 Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual Chapter 5 Gases and Hazardous Atmospheres 5-1 OBJECTIVES Mine rescue teams will find themselves in environments where toxic and hazardous substances pose threats to their health. Being able to identify and respond safely to these substances is a fundamental aspect of mine rescue. Upon completion of this chapter, the trainee shall be able to demonstrate understanding of:  Terms, concepts, and formulae  The properties and effects of mine gases Introduction Many gases found in a mine during normal operating conditions can have a harmful effect on the human body if inhaled for a period of time in concentrations above the recognized safe limit. Emergencies such as fires can emit large quantities of toxic or explosive gases and create an oxygen- deficient atmosphere. The first priority for miners at the time of a mine fire is to protect themselves from these conditions. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS On The Threshold of Understanding: Toxic Chemicals Deadly concentrations of toxic gases may be only a few parts per million (ppm). For many of us, 1 ppm is about as hard to visualize as the national debt. The following examples will help grasp what one part per million really represents and also help you think in metric units. One ppm is the same as:  1 metre step in 1,000 kilometres  1 millilitre per 1,000 litres of liquid  1 square centimetre in 100 square metres  1 cent in 10,000 dollars Threshold limit values (TLVs) are airborne concentrations of substances and to which most workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect. Because of the wide variation in individual susceptibility, however, a small percentage of people may experience discomfort from some substances at concentrations at or below the threshold limit. A smaller percentage may be affected more seriously by aggravation of a pre-existing condition or by development of an occupational illness. The categories of TLVs are specified, as follows: Threshold Limit Value – Time Weighted Average (TLV̻TWA) is the time-weighted average concentration for a normal eight-hour workday and a 40̻hour workweek, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse health effects. Note: When TWA is not indicated, refer to the 8-hour TLV. A Concentration Equivalent (Ceq) formula must be used for shifts longer than an eight-hour workday and a 40 hour workweek. The formula used depends on the jurisdiction in which the mine is located. 5-2 Threshold Limit Value – Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) is the concentration to which workers can be exposed for a short period of time without suffering from:  Irritation  Chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or  Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue or materially reduce work efficiency, provided that the daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded. The STEL is not a separate independent exposure limit. Rather, it supplements the time-weighted average (TWA) limit where there are recognized acute effects from a substance whose toxic effects are primarily of a chronic nature. STELs are recommended only where toxic effects have been reported from high short term exposures in either humans or animals. A STEL is defined as a 15-minute exposure which should not be exceeded at any time during a work day even if the eight-hour time weighted average is within the TLV. Exposures at the STEL should not be longer than 15 minutes and should not be repeated more than four times per day. There should be at least 60 minutes between successive exposures at the STEL. A period other than 15 minutes may be recommended when this is warranted by observed biological effects. Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV-C) is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure. Combined Threshold Limit Values The air in a mine may contain a combination of different gases, which when combined may cause adverse effects and therefore must be taken into account. When two or more hazardous substances have a similar toxicological effect on the same target or system, their combined effect, rather than that of either individually, should be given primary consideration. The equation for determining the combined TLV is: C1 C2 Cn + + = Dose T1 T2 Tn Where C is the concentration and T is the threshold limit value. If Dose is greater than 1, the TLV for the mixture has been exceeded. Median Lethal Dose (LD 50) refers to the dose of a toxic substance that would be fatal for 50% of a test population. Median Lethal Concentration (LC 50) refers to how concentrated a toxic substance must be in an atmosphere to be fatal for 50% of a test population. Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) refers to a condition posing immediate danger to life or health, or a condition posing an immediate threat of severe exposure to contaminants. If a concentration of a contaminant is above the IDLH, only positive-pressure breathing apparatus should be used to enter such an atmosphere or to move someone through that atmosphere. 5-3 Airborne particulate concentrations are generally measured in milligrams per cubic metre of air (mg/m3) and gaseous concentrations are measured as parts per million or % by volume. Lower and Upper Explosive Limits refer to the minimum (LEL) and maximum (UEL) concentrations of a gas or vapour in air that will ignite when exposed to an ignition source provided there is sufficient oxygen to support combustion. Relative density (vapour density or specific gravity) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard substance under specified conditions. For liquids and solids the standard is usually water. For gases the standard is often air. Fig 5.1 Relative density and Explosive range for Methane The pH scale is a means of measuring a substance’s acidity or alkalinity. The scale is broken down into 14 degrees. Pure water has a pH of 7. A pH below 7 indicates that a substance is acidic, while a pH above 7 indicates that a substance is basic or alkaline. Both acidic and basic substances are corrosive, but the severity increases the further away one gets from a pH of 7. Regulatory requirements and site-specific procedures dictate special precautions required for any gases stored or transported in pressurized containers. 5-4 NAME OF GAS Air Gas Mixture (AIR) PROPERTIES Air is colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-flammable. It is a mixture of several gases that, though ordinarily invisible, can be weighed, compressed to a liquid or frozen to a solid. Pure, dry air at sea level contains several gases, in the following proportions by volume %: nitrogen (N2), 78.09; oxygen (CO2), 20.94; argon (Ar), 0.94 and carbon dioxide (CO2), 0.03 Traces of other gases such as hydrogen and helium, are also present. The air in a well ventilated mine seldom shows any depletion of the oxygen content. HOW FORMED Air is the invisible envelope surrounding the earth, in which plants, animals, and human beings live and breathe. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Mine air may be contaminated by the presence of other gases such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane, oxides of nitrogen and excess carbon dioxide. The presence of these gases may be due to any of the following:  Blasting or other explosions  Mine fires  Diffusion from ore or country rock, as with methane or radon  Decay of mine timber  Absorption of oxygen by water or oxidation of timber or ore  Use of diesel motors underground  Gas released from thermal water – carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide Except in the case of fire, adequate positive ventilating currents will prevent any dangerous accumulation of these gases. Gases may affect people either by their combustible, explosive or toxic properties, or, if inert, by the displacement of oxygen. The effects may be due to a variety of conditions including:  Altitude: Breathing becomes more laborious due to the decrease in oxygen content as the altitude increases. This is not dangerous unless conditions are extreme or the work arduous.  Humidity: High temperatures with high humidity are very enervating and cause considerable discomfort.  Temperature: High temperatures with low humidity are not dangerous except from the blistering effect of heat. Impure Air Non-toxic gaseous impurities are not dangerous unless they have displaced oxygen to a level below 19.5%. Regardless of the oxygen level, some toxic gases have deadly effects, even in very low concentrations. Effects may be sudden or gradual, depending on the concentration of the impurity. 5-5 NOTE: The Physiological Effects charts included with each gas sheet are general levels associated with the effects, not specific ranges. The data contained comes from many different resource materials. Care has been taken to use the most consistent and recent data possible. NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Acetylene (C₂H₂) PROPERTIES: Acetylene is colourless, has a faint odour of ether, and is tasteless. Acetylene is a highly flammable hydrocarbon fuel that produces industry’s hottest flame (3,260 C/5,900 F) when combined with oxygen in the oxyacetylene process. Acetylene is very unstable and can become dangerously explosive if compressed above 100 kilopascals (kPa) (15 psi) in the free state. Acetylene cylinders are therefore packed with porous material that is saturated with acetone in which the acetylene is dissolved. Acetylene can thus be safely stored and transported at a pressure of 1,700 kPa (250 psi). Never use acetylene above 100 kPa (15 psi). Acetylene has an explosive range of 2.8%–81%. HOW FORMED Product of mixing water with calcium carbide EFFECTS ON HUMANS Can displace oxygen OTHER INFORMATION Acetylene forms an explosive compound with copper and alloys containing more than 67% copper. The hazard is carefully avoided in the manufacture of welding torches, tips, and regulators. If an acetylene cylinder has been laid on its side, place the cylinder upright and wait at least one hour before using, as per the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Some welders call acetylene “gas” and oxygen “air”. This dangerous habit could cause death or injury under certain circumstances. Call all gases by their proper names. 5-6 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Ammonia (NH₃) PROPERTIES Ammonia is colourless, has a very pungent odour characteristic of drying urine, and is tasteless. Ammonia (also known as anhydrous ammonia or ammoniac) is a flammable caustic gas with a strong and distinctive smell detectable at concentrations of 1 to 50 ppm. Ammonia has an explosive range of 16%–25%. HOW FORMED It is formed by the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. It is stored in commercial cylinders as a compressed liquefied gas. It is corrosive and also explosive when exposed to heat and oxidizing substances. It can also be formed by contact between ammonium nitrate and cement. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Ammonia’s corrosive qualities will irritate the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, or moist skin and may cause considerable distress. Even brief exposure to concentrations of 5,000 ppm or more may cause rapid death due to suffocation or oedema in the lungs. OTHER INFORMATION: Specific clean-up procedures:  Move the leaking cylinder to an exhaust hood or safe outdoor area for venting. Mark the empty cylinder DEFECTIVE.  Use a water spray or fog to reduce the gas cloud from a serious leak or spill, but do not aim a water jet directly at the source of the leak.  If possible, turn the leaking cylinder so that gas rather than liquid escapes. Isolate the area until the gas has dispersed. Firefighting procedures for fires involving ammonia: Carbon dioxide and powder extinguishers are suitable for fighting fires in which ammonia is involved. Stop the flow of gas or liquid and move ammonia cylinders from the fire area if it is safe to do so. Use a water spray to keep containers cool but do not direct water at the source of an ammonia leak or a venting safety device. Pressurized containers may explode in a fire, releasing irritating ammonia gas; be prepared by wearing self-contained breathing apparatus. Ammonia is not readily ignited, but explosions of air-ammonia mixtures have occurred, particularly in confined spaces. Physiological Effects of Ammonia NH₃ in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms >1 Detectable odor 1–3 Mild irritation of mucus membranes 5–15 Moderate irritation of mucus membranes 30 Chest pain, shortness of breath, coughing 40–60 Fluid in the lungs (oedema), pneumonitis 400 Fatal in 30 minutes 1,000 Fatal in a few minutes 5-7 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) PROPERTIES Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that when breathed in large quantities may cause a distinctly acidic taste. The gas will not burn or support combustion. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and is often found in low places and abandoned mine workings. HOW FORMED Carbon dioxide, an inert gas, is a normal constituent of mine air. It is a product of the decomposition or combustion of organic compounds in the presence of oxygen as well as respiration of humans and animals. The proportion of carbon dioxide in mine air is increased by the process of breathing, by open flame, explosions and blasting, or by escape from thermal water. It is also used as an extinguishing agent and is also released from dry ice. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Clinical investigations indicate that carbon dioxide influences the respiratory rate. This rate increases rapidly with increasing amounts of carbon dioxide. Physiological Effects of Carbon Dioxide CO₂ in the Atmosphere (ppm) Increase in respiration 500 Slight 20,000 50% 30,000 100% 50,000 300% & Laborious 100,000 Survivable for only a few minutes 5-8 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Carbon Monoxide (CO) PROPERTIES Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that, when breathed in even low concentrations, will produce symptoms of poisoning. Carbon monoxide has an explosive range of 12.5%–74%. It is only slightly soluble in water and is not removed from the air to any extent by water sprays. It is slightly lighter than air. HOW FORMED Carbon monoxide gas is one of the greatest chemical hazards to humans. It is a product of combustion in normal blasting operations and the operation of internal combustion engines. It is also produced by occurrences such as mine fires or gas explosions. It can be formed wherever organic compounds are burned in an atmosphere with insufficient oxygen to carry the process of burning or oxidation to completion. EFFECTS ON HUMANS When carbon monoxide is absorbed it reduces the capacity of the haemoglobin for carrying oxygen to the tissues. The affinity of haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is about 300 times its affinity for oxygen. This means that when even a small amount of carbon monoxide is present in the air breathed, the haemoglobin will absorb the carbon monoxide in preference to the oxygen. It is this interference with the oxygen supply to the body that produces the symptoms of poisoning. Physiological Effects of Carbon Monoxide CO in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms 0–35 No symptoms 36–200 Flu-like symptoms: runny nose, headache 201–800 Dizziness, drowsiness, vomiting in less than an hour 801+ Unconsciousness, brain damage, and death 5-9 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Chlorine (Cl₂) PROPERTIES Chlorine is a heavy, greenish yellow, non-flammable gas that has an odour similar to chlorine bleach and is tasteless. Chlorine is easily liquefied and is supplied commercially as a liquid under pressure in cylinders and larger containers. HOW FORMED Electrolysis of common salt and other chemical reactions involving chlorine compounds. Some of its uses include treating potable water and milling processes. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Because of its fairly low solubility in water, chlorine is a severe irritant to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system (oedema). OTHER INFORMATION Chlorine itself is not flammable, but it may react to cause fire or explosions upon contact with turpentine, ether, ammonia, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, or steel pipes and vessels. Refer to site-specific procedures for handling and storing chlorine. Only specially trained workers should manage incidents involving chlorine. Special considerations for handling leaking chlorine containers:  If chlorine is escaping as a liquid, turn the container so that chlorine gas escapes. The amount of gas escaping from a leak is about one-fifteenth the amount of liquid which will escape through a hole of the same size.  Do not apply water to a chlorine leak.  Pinhole leaks in cylinders and large containers may sometimes be temporarily stopped by tapered hardwood pegs or metal drift pins driven into the holes. First turn the container so that only gas is escaping. Use extreme care in driving the plug because the wall area surrounding the hole may be thin and crumble. After taking this emergency measure, empty the cylinder as quickly as possible. Physiological Effects of Chlorine Gas Cl₂ in the Atmosphere (PPM) Symptoms 0–6 Eye irritation 7–15 Throat and lung irritation 16–30 Chest pain, vomiting, coughing, difficulty breathing, excess fluid in lungs (oedema) 430+ Fatal in 30 minutes 5-10 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Hydrogen (H₂) PROPERTIES Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is highly flammable. Hydrogen has an explosive range of 4%–74% with as little as 5% oxygen in the air. HOW FORMED Hydrogen can be produced when rock is heated to incandescence. It is a product of incomplete combustion or distilling coal. The most common source of hydrogen at mines is battery charging. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen may cause an oxygen-deficient atmosphere resulting in asphyxiation. 5-11 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) PROPERTIES Hydrogen cyanide is a colourless, tasteless gas with a distinctive odour of bitter almonds. Many people cannot detect presence by odour therefore the scent alone does not provide adequate warning of hazardous concentration. It condenses to a colourless liquid at temperatures below ̻26 C. Hydrogen cyanide has an explosive range of 5.6%–40%. HOW FORMED Hydrogen cyanide is formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid on cyanide compounds, such as potassium/sodium cyanide. It may occur in concentrator areas where cyanide is used as a reagent in the milling of gold ore, and other places where cyanide compounds are used. It may also be released from cyanide-bearing concentrator tailings. A solution of hydrogen cyanide in water is called hydrocyanic acid or prussic acid. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen cyanide is a fast-acting and deadly poison that causes paralysis of the respiratory system and chemical asphyxiation. It interferes with the normal use of oxygen by nearly every organ of the body. It is particularly dangerous as it can be absorbed through the skin as well as by inhalation. Physiological Effects of Hydrogen Cyanide HCN in the Symptoms of Exposure Atmosphere (PPM) 0–20 May detect odour. Minor symptoms. 20–50 Depending on amount and exposure time, may have initially experience restlessness and increased respiratory rate. Other early symptoms may include weakness, giddiness difficulty breathing, heart palpitations, headache. Onset of signs and symptoms is usually rapid after inhalation and may continue for several hours after exposure >50 Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, respiratory failure, unconsciousness. >110 Can be quickly fatal 5-12 NAME OF GAS and CHEMICAL SYMBOL Hydrogen Sulphide (H₂S) PROPERTIES Hydrogen sulphide is colourless, tasteless, highly toxic, and highly soluble in water. In low concentrations its distinctive rotten egg smell is noticeable, but in high concentrations the sense of smell is quickly paralyzed by the action of the gas on the respiratory system and cannot be relied upon as a warning. Hydrogen sulphide has an explosive range of 4.3%–45%. HOW FORMED Dust explosions occurring in blasting operations in sulphide ore bodies can create hydrogen sulphide. It is also formed from burning sulphide ores or in the reaction of hydrochloric acid on sulphide concentrations. It may also be released from coal or country rock pockets, or from vegetable matter decomposing in water. EFFECTS ON HUMANS Hydrogen sulphide is highly toxic and has neurotoxic effects. It immediately paralyzes the sense of smell and progresses to respiratory paralysis then death. It is an irritant that may cause pulmonary oedema.

Western Canada Mine Rescue Manual with AMSA Additions PDF

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