Week 9 Psychology Notes PDF

9.1 Thinking, Reasoning, and Cognitive Economy Thinking/Cognition: Mental activity or processing of information, involved in learning, remembering, perceiving, attention, language, believing, and deciding. Reasoning: Thinking logically about something. Cognitive Economy: Our br...

9.1 Thinking, Reasoning, and Cognitive Economy Thinking/Cognition: Mental activity or processing of information, involved in learning, remembering, perceiving, attention, language, believing, and deciding. Reasoning: Thinking logically about something. Cognitive Economy: Our brains minimize cognitive effort due to limited processing capacity (being "cognitive misers"). ○ Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb for problem-solving or decision-making. Bat and Ball Problem: Demonstrates substituting complex problems with simpler ones for faster solutions. Common errors arise from intuitive responses conflicting with logic. Trémolière & De Neys (2014) Car Price Study: Examined how context (expensive vs. moderate car prices) affects solving similar math problems, showing the influence of intuitive reasoning. Room with a Cue Study (Gosling, 2008): Participants accurately judged personality traits (e.g., emotional stability, openness) based on dorm room observations. Two Modes of Thinking (Kahneman, 2011): ○ System 1: Intuitive: Fast, effortless thinking (e.g., first impressions, stereotypes). ○ System 2: Analytical: Slow, effortful thinking (e.g., problem-solving, logical reasoning). Heuristics and Cognitive Biases: ○ Representativeness Heuristic: Judging probability based on similarity to a prototype or stereotype, often ignoring base rates. Example: Assuming someone in a suit is a lawyer without considering population statistics. ○ Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. Examples: Overestimating rare events like shark attacks due to vivid media coverage. ○ Hindsight Bias: Overestimating ability to predict outcomes after they occur. Examples: Political outcomes, sports results, or exam questions. 9.2 Thinking at Its Hardest: Decision Making and Problem Solving Decision Making: Choosing among alternatives, influenced by cognitive economy and both thinking systems. ○ Timothy Wilson et al. Art Study (1993): Students trusting their gut were happier with decisions compared to those analyzing pros/cons.  ○ Analysis Paralysis: Overthinking leads to decision-making delays, common in team settings or high-stakes purchases. ○ Simonson & Tversky (1992) Camera Study: Compromise Effect: Preference for intermediate options when choices are presented in varying contexts. ○ Framing: The way information is presented influences decisions. Example: Highlighting survival rates vs. mortality rates for cancer treatments affects patient preferences. Problem Solving: Creating a strategy to achieve specific goals. ○ Techniques: Algorithms, subgoals, substitutions, and analogical approaches. ○ Obstacles: Mental Sets: Difficulty seeing alternative strategies after using familiar ones. Example: Water jug experiment showed decreased accuracy after repetitive task patterns. Functional Fixedness: Struggling to use objects in unconventional ways. Example: Candle problem (Duncker, 1945) highlighted the role of object presentation (in boxes vs. outside). 9.3 How Does Language Work? Language: An arbitrary system of communication using rule-based symbols (exceptions: onomatopoeia, sound symbolism). ○ Functions: Information exchange, social interaction, and emotional expression. ○ Language and Thought: Winawer et al. (2007) Colour Discrimination Study: Showed linguistic relativity; language shapes thought (e.g., Russian speakers distinguish shades of blue better than English speakers). Linguistic Determinism: Language defines thinking (evidence suggests this is overly simplistic). Linguistic Relativity: Language influences but doesn't determine thought. ○ Features of Language: Phonemes: Smallest sound units (e.g., /k/, /a/, /t/ in "cat"). Morphemes: Smallest meaning units (e.g., "re-", "dog"). Syntax: Rules for sentence structure and grammar. Extralinguistic Information: Non-verbal cues like tone and facial expressions. The Stroop Effect: Demonstrates difficulty in separating word meaning and ink color. 9.4 How do Children Learn Language(s)? Key Milestones: 1. At 5 months of pregnancy: Fetus recognizes mother’s voice and native language sounds. 2. Babbling: Starts within the first year, helping babies learn vocal tract control. 3. Phoneme Recognition: Initially universal, narrows to relevant sounds by age one. 4. Word Learning: First words around 1 year, progressing rapidly. Errors: Overextension (e.g., all flying objects = birds), Underextension (e.g., "cat" = only their pet). Move from one-word stage (~1 year) to two-word stage (~2 years). Tickling Study: Demonstrated early understanding of syntax (e.g., “The pig is tickling the dog”). Special Cases: 1. Sign Language: Shares features with spoken language; developmental stages are similar. 2. Bilingualism: Earlier exposure leads to better outcomes; slows syntax development but not vocabulary. 3. Critical Period vs. Sensitive Period: Critical: Skills must be learned in this window (e.g., syntax, pronunciation). Study: Immigrants learning English showed syntax errors correlated with later exposure. Language Acquisition Theories: 1. Imitation: Learning by observing and mimicking adults (doesn’t explain generative language use). 2. Nativist: Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD) suggests innate knowledge of syntax. 3. Social Pragmatics: Inferring meaning from social context. 4. General Cognitive Processing: Language learning arises from broader cognitive skills.