A Tutorial on the Concept of the Motivating Operation PDF

A Tutorial on the Concept of the Motivating Operation and its Importance to Application Paul Langthorne, Ph.D., BCBA Peter McGill, MPhil, CPsychol, BCBA University of Kent ABSTRACT Motivating operations (MOs) exert a powerful influence over oper- a...

A Tutorial on the Concept of the Motivating Operation and its Importance to Application Paul Langthorne, Ph.D., BCBA Peter McGill, MPhil, CPsychol, BCBA University of Kent ABSTRACT Motivating operations (MOs) exert a powerful influence over oper- ant relations and hold significant implications for those working in applied settings. In this paper, we describe the concept of the MO and provide “real world” examples. Particular emphasis is given to the concept of the conditioned MO (CMO). Implications for intervention are discussed. It is hoped that this endeavour will encourage the utilization of the full conceptual system of the MO. Keywords: Establishing operation, motivating operations T he investigation of operant rela- tions is an integral part of applied behavior analysis. A key role of functional analysis, for example, is to identify consequences that reinforce 191). In redressing this balance, Michael (1982, 1993) drew a distinction between antecedent variables that serve to signal the availability of reinforcement or punishment (discriminative stimuli) and exists for that reinforcer. FCT is one of the most frequently used interventions for problem behavior. This typically involves the differential reinforcement of an alternative, socially acceptable problem behavior (Iwata & Dozier, those that act on a person’s “motivation” response (Tiger et al., 2008). MOs may 2008). This has led to the adoption of for such consequences. have a notable influence on this process. interventions that are systematically de- More recently, the term motivating For example, the replacement response rived from this understanding (e.g., func- operation (MO) has come to subsume that will not be evoked in the absence of an tional communication training [FCT]; of the establishing operation (Laraway, MO for the consequence that maintains Tiger, Hanley, & Bruzek, 2008). Such Snycerski, Michael, & Poling, 2003). it (see Brown et al., 2000). Likewise, developments have had a profound The MO refers to an event or stimulus the extent to which time-out or response impact on the lives of many people. condition that momentarily alters (a) cost will suppress a given response is As well as asking what maintains a the value of consequences that act as dependent on the current MO for the behavior, it is equally important for re- types of reinforcement or punishment, reinforcer that is to be removed. A num- searchers and practitioners to ask, “Why and (b) the probability of behaviors that ber of treatments for problem behavior is this consequence acting as an effective have been previously associated with also rely on modifications to the value of reinforcer for this person now?” (McGill, such consequences. In short, an MO the reinforcer maintaining the behavior 1999). Within the operant model, it has changes how much you “want” some- (e.g., noncontingent reinforcement). been established that the value of a given thing and how hard you will “work” to Several comprehensive reviews of the consequence as a type of reinforcement get it (Michael, 1982). applied literature on the MO are now or punishment is in constant flux, as is The concept of the MO has had available (e.g., Langthorne, McGill, & the probability of behavior occurring a notable influence on the science and O’Reilly, 2007; McGill, 1999; Smith & that has previously been associated practice of applied behavior analysis. Iwata, 1997; Sundberg, 2004). Despite with such consequences (Fuller, 1949; There are few, if any, areas in which the importance of the MO to applied Skinner, 1953). Keller and Schoenfeld MOs should not be an important con- behavior analysis, it appears that ele- (1950) adopted the term establishing sideration for behavior analysts. MOs ments of the conceptual system provided operation to describe the effect of ante- exert an influence on the effectiveness by Michael and colleagues, such as the cedent manipulations, such as food de- of any intervention that involves the conditioned motivating operation (CMO) privation, on the strength of a response. manipulation of consequences. For (e.g., Laraway et al., 2003; Michael, A systematic approach to the analysis of example, the ability of a reinforcement 1982; Michael, 1993, 2000; Michael, such events was absent, however, leaving contingency to increase the occurrence 2007), have been less influential than “a gap in our understanding of operant of a particular behavior depends on would be expected (see McGill, 1999). functional relations” (Michael, 1993, p. the degree of motivation that currently As such, the current paper aims to shed 22 THE MOTIVATING OPERATION Behavior Analysis in Practice, 2(2), 22-31  Value-altering effect Establishes water as an effective reinforcer EO (Athlete running 10 miles) Behavior-altering effect Evokes behaviors maintained by access to water Value-altering effect Abolishes water as an effective reinforcer AO (Athlete drinking water) Behavior-altering effect Abates behaviors maintained by access to water Figure 1. Depiction of the value- and behavior-altering effects of the MO. The run acts as an EO (establishes water as an effective reinforcer and evokes (i.e., increases) behaviors maintained by access to water. The drinking of water acts as an AO (abolishes water as an effective reinforcer and decreases behaviors maintained by access to water). further light on the concept of the MO. Descriptions of the share two main properties. The first property, termed the MO concept are related to real-world examples to help achieve value-altering effect, refers to the effect of an antecedent event this aim. Particular emphasis is given to the concept of the on the effectiveness of other stimuli that function as types of CMO. We will discuss the implications of the MO for assess- reinforcement or punishment (Laraway et al., 2003). An EO ment and intervention. It is our hope that this exercise will establishes the effectiveness of a particular type of reinforce- demonstrate the applied importance of the MO and encourage ment or punishment, whereas an abolishing operation (AO) practicing behavior analysts to use the full conceptual system abolishes the effectiveness of a particular form of reinforcement as initially envisaged by Michael and colleagues. or punishment. For example, the value of a drink for an athlete is established as an effective reinforcer following a long run, The Motivating Operation: A Brief Tutorial whereas it is abolished after he has consumed a large quantity Diverse strands of psychological research have attempted of water. to describe and explain the concept of motivation (Kennedy The second property of the MO is referred to as the & Meyer, 1998). The MO provides a functional account of behavior-altering effect (Laraway et al., 2003). An EO evokes this concept by relating changes in the variables that underpin (i.e., increases) behavior that has been previously associated motivation to basic principles of behavior. The MO is the with the events it establishes as reinforcers (and vice-versa result of an evolution in operant terminology. Michael (1982, for behaviors associated with punishment), whereas an AO 1993) originally used the term establishing operation (EO) to abates (i.e., decreases) behavior that has been associated with refer to antecedent events that momentarily alter (a) the ef- events it abolishes as reinforcers (and vice-versa for behaviors fectiveness of consequent events that function as reinforcers associated with punishment). Taking the same example, an or punishers (termed the reinforcer-establishing effect), and (b) athlete who has just completed a long run will be more likely the frequency of responses that have been associated with those to display behaviors that have been associated with drinking consequences in the past (termed the evocative effect). For con- in the past, such as walking to a drinking fountain. Likewise, venience, movements in the opposite direction were subsumed the probability of the athlete displaying the same behavior within the rubric term of the EO. As Michael (1982) stated, abates after drinking a large quantity of water. Descriptions “‘establishing’ should be taken to be short for ‘establishing or of the behavior-altering effect of the MO have typically been abolishing’” (p.151). The use of the term EO in this manner, restricted to changes in frequency. However as Michael (2007) however, did not adequately describe the bidirectional effects noted, the MO may alter other dimensions of behavior such of motivating events. as response latency, magnitude, or relative frequency. Figure 1 As such, Laraway et al. (2003) refined the concept, provides a depiction of the value- and behavior- altering effects proposing that the omnibus term of the motivating operation of the MO. replace that of the EO. MOs refer to antecedent events that MOs may have multiple and simultaneous effects (Laraway THE MOTIVATING OPERATION 23  et al., 2003). Multiple concurrent operants (i.e., responses such as food deprivation, can only be considered a discrimina- maintained by different reinforcers) often are available to the tive stimulus if (a) in its presence, reinforcement is available for individual in natural contexts, and a single MO manipulation a certain class of responses, and (b) in its absence, reinforcement may alter response allocation between two or more different is not available for that class of responses. When an individual behaviors. For example, Berg et al. (2000) demonstrated that is food deprived, reinforcement (access to food) is available for a young girl with developmental disabilities was more likely responses such as snack preparation so the requirements of (a) to play with her mother following time spent alone and more are met. When an individual is not food deprived, access to likely to play with toys following periods with high levels of food remains just as available should the individual engage in maternal attention. As such, a single event (e.g., access to snack preparation so the second part of the test fails. maternal attention) may function as both an EO and an AO The same logic applies to behaviors that are maintained for responses maintained by different consequences. Likewise, by negative reinforcement. Consider the onset of an aversive behaviors from the same response class may be influenced by stimulus, such as a difficult demand. For the onset of the de- multiple MOs. For example, the value of noncontingent escape mand to function as a discriminative stimulus, escape from the may be influenced by a variety of MOs, such as the amount of demand must be available in the presence of the demand but sleep the individual has had, the difficulty of the request, and not in its absence. Furthermore, escape must be an effective re- so on. inforcer in both the presence and absence of the demand (i.e., Michael (2007) also noted that a single stimulus change escape must be more available rather than more valuable in the may not only function as an MO but as a form of reinforcement presence of the demand). However, it is not possible to with- or punishment. The deprivation of attention, for example, hold escape from the demand in the absence of the demand, may function as an EO for subsequent attention-maintained and escape is not an effective reinforcer in the absence of the behavior but may also function as a type of punishment for demand. The demand functions as an MO because its onset any behavior that precedes the onset of deprivation. Likewise, establishes its own removal as an effective type of reinforce- providing access to food may reinforce food-maintained be- ment and thereby evokes an escape response. haviors but may also serve to abolish the effectiveness of food The provenance of MOs is an important consideration for as a reinforcer. Aspects of the MO await empirical verification; applied behavior analysts. Knowledge of how certain events ac- however, it is critical that the importance of such relations is quire their value- and behavior-altering effects can have impor- recognized in applied settings. tant implications for intervention in applied contexts (McGill, 1999; Sundberg, 1993). Historically, behavior analysts have Distinguishing Motivating Operations From tended to place greater emphasis on those events that acquire Discriminative Stimuli value- and behavior-altering effects from the organism’s evolu- Prior to discussing MOs in greater detail, it is important tionary history (such as the deprivation of food or drink), and to draw a clear distinction between MOs and another class neglected those events that acquire their value- and behavior- of antecedents, discriminative stimuli. Discriminative stimuli altering effects as a result of the organism’s learning history. are events that have been associated with the availability or As such, after briefly discussing unconditioned MOs, we will non-availability of reinforcement in the past. The presence of focus on the different types of conditioned MOs and their a green light on a drinks dispenser, for example, signals the relevance to understanding and treating applied problems. availability of a can of soda, whereas the presence of a red light signals its unavailability. There has been some attempt to Unconditioned Motivating Operations expand the concept of discriminative stimulus to account for Certain events may acquire their value- and behavior-alter- the effects of MOs (e.g., McDevitt & Fantino, 1993). Such an ing effects as a result of the person’s evolutionary history. Such enterprise holds few benefits. Consider the influence of food events are termed unconditioned MOs (UMOs). Deprivation deprivation on a response maintained by access to food. Two of reinforcement, such as food, drink, environmental stimula- simple tests can help determine whether an antecedent event, tion or preferred activities, establishes the value of these same such as food deprivation, is discriminative or motivational. stimuli as reinforcers and exerts an evocative effect on behaviors First, the question can be asked, “Is the consequence more that have been associated with these consequences in the past. available or more valuable following a period of deprivation?” Satiation of these types of stimuli abolishes their reinforcing The antecedent event is likely to be a discriminative stimulus if value and abates associated behaviors. the reinforcer (access to food) is more available in the presence Deprivation and satiation also influence the extent to of the event. Of course, access to food is no more likely when which the contingent removal of primary types of reinforce- you are food deprived, so food deprivation is not a discrimina- ment will function as a type of punishment. Thus, a person tive stimulus. Rather access to food is more valuable when you must be deprived of food (or in common parlance be hungry) are food deprived, so food deprivation is an MO. in order for the contingent removal of food to act as an effec- More systematically, a second question may be asked, tive type of punishment. The onset of certain forms of aversive “Does the antecedent event meet both requirements of the stimulation, such as pain, or temperature changes above or definition of a discriminative stimulus?” An antecedent event, below a comfortable level, similarly act as UMOs for negatively 24 THE MOTIVATING OPERATION Table 1. Summary Information for Each Type of CMO CMO-type Description Example CMO-S Alters the value of consequences that Time on the clock influences are under the control of an MO with which it the reinforcing value of food has been paired CMO-R Alters the value of its own removal or continued Delivery of a demand establishes presence as a type of reinforcement or punishment the reinforcing value of its removal CMO-T Alters the value of another stimulus or event Presence of a lock on a fridge as a type of reinforcement or punishment establishes the reinforcing value of a key when access to food is valuable as a source of reinforcement reinforced behavior (i.e., behavior that produces escape from systematically preceded or having been paired with a UMO, these events). These sources of motivation are unlearned. another CMO, or particular types of reinforcement or punish- The implications of the direct modification of UMOs for ment. Three forms of CMOs have been proposed: surrogate the treatment of problem behavior have been discussed else- CMOs, reflexive CMOs, and transitive CMOs. Table 1 provides where (e.g., McGill, 1999). Such modifications would involve summary information for each type of CMO. replacing EOs for problem behavior (such as the deprivation The Surrogate CMO of attention or preferred tangibles, high levels of aversive stimuli, the absence of environmental stimulation) with AOs A surrogate CMO (CMO-S) is a previously neutral stimu- (for example high levels of social contact and access to preferred lus that, following temporal association with a UMO or other tangibles, low levels of aversive stimuli, and sufficient levels of CMO, independently alters the effectiveness of other stimuli as environmental stimulation). Berg et al. (2000) demonstrated reinforcers or punishers and alters the probability of associated that the attention-maintained problem behavior of two chil- behaviors. The CMO-S acts on the value of those consequences dren with developmental disabilities was much more likely to that are under the control of its associated MO. Consider, for occur following long periods of time spent without any social example, a person who always has lunch at midday. The time contact (the EO). Providing high levels of social contact before on the clock in addition to having discriminative properties treatment sessions functioned as an AO and reduced the oc- (such as signalling the opening of the canteen) may also exert currence of attention-maintained problem behavior. Likewise, a motivative influence. Following the repeated pairing of food Horner, Day, and Day (1997) reported that sleep deprivation deprivation and the time of 12:00 p.m. on a clock, the time functioned as an EO for the tangible-maintained aggression on the clock may eventually acquire motivative properties of and self-injury of one boy with autism. Allowing the boy to its own. That is, through repeated association with the un- have a nap appeared to function as an AO and reduced the conditioned establishing operation (UEO; food deprivation), occurrence of problem behavior. Frequently, the direct modi- the previously neutral stimulus (time on the clock) may itself fication of UMOs for problem behavior involves providing a establish the reinforcing value of food and evoke food-related better ‘quality of life’ for the individual (McGill, 1999). As behavior independent of actual levels of food deprivation (see Iwata, Vollmer, Zarcone, and Rodgers (1993) noted, however, Figure 2 for a depiction of this relation). The time on the clock interventions that solely involve the modification of MOs do may also establish the punishing value of food unavailability not disrupt the contingencies that maintain problem behavior. and reduce behaviors that have been associated with such de- As such, problem behavior would be expected to re-emerge lays in the past, such as answering the telephone, independent whenever the EO for problem behavior is present. of current levels of food deprivation. Similar effects could occur in the opposite direction. Conditioned Motivating Operations Consider, for example, stimuli that are temporally associated Other events acquire their value-altering effects as a re- with water satiation (such as the sight of an empty glass). sult of the person’s learning history. Such events are termed Following repeated pairing with the UMO (having had suf- conditioned motivating operations (CMOs). Previously ficient amounts of water to drink), the previously neutral neutral events may acquire the status of a CMO after having stimulus (seeing an empty glass) may acquire abolishing and THE MOTIVATING OPERATION 25  abative effects. Specifically, the onset of such stimuli may abol- A small number of studies have demonstrated that the ish the current reinforcing value of further access to water and onset of diverted attention (i.e., someone paying attention reduce related behaviors, such as going to the tap to refill the to another person) can evoke attention-maintained problem glass, independent of actual levels of water deprivation. The behavior in individuals with developmental disabilities (e.g., water is no more or less available in such a situation, but it is O’Reilly, Lancioni, King, Lally, & Dhomhnaill, 2000). It may less reinforcing. be that diverted attention functions as a form of surrogate CEO (CEO-S). It seems reasonable to suggest that situations that involve a caregiver interacting with another person are associated with momentary reductions in the level of social 1. Food deprivation as UMO establishes contact received by the person. Over time, this initially neutral the value of food as a reinforcer event would be expected to acquire establishing and evocative properties, independent of actual levels of social contact. If diverted attention were to function as a CEO-S for attention- Value- and behavior- maintained behavior, one would expect there to be higher rates altering effects UMO of problem behavior occurring in the diverted attention condi- (Food as reinforcer; (food deprivation) tion than in the standard attention condition even if actual food-maintained levels of attention were the same. This pattern of responding behavior) corresponds closely to that found in O’Reilly et al. (2000). The problem behavior of two individuals with developmental dis- abilities occurred at zero rates in an initial attention condition during which the child’s parents interacted with one another 2. Food deprivation paired with previously every 10 s while ignoring the child. However, problem behav- neutral stimulus (time on clock) ior occurred at notably higher levels in a subsequent diverted attention condition during which both parents interacted with a third person every 10 s. UMO One possible intervention when a CMO-S is implicated (food deprivation) in problem behavior is to weaken the relationship between the CEO-S (e.g., diverted attention) and the EO with which it was originally paired (e.g., absence of social contact). For example, providing high levels of social contact during a diverted atten- tion condition would terminate the relationship between the CMO-S and MO. That is, diverted attention would no longer Neutral stimulus be associated with decreases in social contact. This tactic was (time on clock) used by O’Reilly et al. (2000). Each child’s parents delivered attention to the child every 10 s during the diverted atten- tion condition, thereby terminating the CEO-S relation and effectively reducing the occurrence of challenging behavior in 3. Time on clock functions as CMO-S and this condition. establishes the value of food as a reinforcer The Reflexive CMO Value- and behavior- Michael described the reflexive CMO (CMO-R) as con- altering effects stituting a ‘promise’ or ‘threat’ CMO. The onset of a CMO-R CMO-S is associated with either the improvement or worsening of the (Food as reinforcer; (time on clock) person’s condition. Therefore, its onset alters the value of its food-maintained behavior) own removal (or continued presence) as a type of reinforce- ment (or punishment) and alters the probability of behaviors occurring that have previously been associated with these consequences. The CMO-R therefore acts on its own reinforc- Figure 2. Depiction of the CMO-S relation. As a result of the ing value and not on that of another stimulus (as is the case pairing between the UMO (food deprivation) and the neutral with the CMO-S). Take a young infant for whom the onset of stimulus (time on the clock), the previously neutral stimulus certain social stimuli (such as seeing his or her mother frown) (time on the clock) acts as a CMO-S. It exerts value- and is correlated with the subsequent onset of an aversive stimulus, behavior-altering effects that are similar to the UMO such as being scolded and thus the ‘worsening’ of his or her (e.g., alters the value of food as a type of reinforcement condition. The onset of the mother’s frown may establish its and alters the probability of food-related behavior). own offset as an effective form of reinforcement and evoke 26 THE MOTIVATING OPERATION behaviors that have been associated with its removal in the removal as a type of reinforcement and would abate aggressive past, such as the infant beginning to cry or ceasing the activity behaviors accordingly by functioning as a reflexive conditioned in which he or she was engaged, thereby acting as a reflexive abolishing operation (CAO-R). Again, given the necessary his- conditioned establishing operation (CEO-R). tory, this would be expected to occur independent of demand The onset of other social stimuli (such as the infant seeing presentation. The glove functions as a CMO-R because it acts a mother’s smile) may be correlated with the subsequent provi- on the value of its own removal and not that of the demands, sion of other more effective types of social reinforcement (such which would be the case if it functioned as a CMO-S. Could the as a cuddle or praise), leading therefore to the ‘improvement’ glove be functioning as a discriminative stimulus? To function of his or her condition. The sight of the smile therefore may establish its continued presence as an effective type of reinforce- ment and evoke behaviors that have led to this in the past, such 1. Demand as MO as smiling back or continuing to engage in the behavior that evoked the smile. Similar effects may apply with punishment. Value- and behavior- For example, the onset of the smile would be likely to establish MO altering effects its own offset as an effective type of punishment. (demand (Escape as reinforcer; As Michael (2007) noted, the CMO-R may have important presentation) escape-maintained implications for practitioners involved in developing adaptive behavior) behavior. In such programs, the onset of certain stimuli, such as an initial verbal request from the trainer, may be followed by further intense social interaction that may have an aversive component if the desired response has not occurred (e.g., 2. Previously neutral stimulus (experimenter repetition of the verbal request, modeling, or hand-over-hand wearing glove) precedes the onset of demands prompting). The onset of the verbal request from the trainer (such as “match green”) may function as a CMO-R in this situation and evoke the desired response from the student. Neutral stimulus A large number of studies have demonstrated that the (experimenter onset of demands can evoke negatively reinforced problem wearing gloves) behavior. There have, however, been very few clear demon- strations of the CMO-R in this context. Carr, Newsom, and Binkoff (1980) provided an examination of the influence of ‘safety signals’ on the negatively reinforced aggressive behavior of two boys with severe intellectual disability. For both par- MO ticipants, the frequency of aggression reduced to low levels in (demand conditions under which a stimulus change was present that had presentation) been previously correlated with the removal of demands (the removal of the experimenter’s gloves for one participant, and the removal of a buttoning board for the other participant). 3. Experimenter wearing his gloves functions as a CMO-R In conditions under which this stimulus change did not occur and establishes the value of its own removal as a reinforcer (i.e., the experimenter kept his gloves on, the buttoning board remained present) aggressive behaviors continued to occur at Value- and behavior- high rates. Interestingly, this analysis was completed in the altering effects absence of any actual demands. CMO-R (Glove removal as These ‘safety signals’ may have functioned as CMO-Rs. (experimenter reinforcer; behavior For example, the sequence of the experimenter wearing his wearing gloves) maintained by glove gloves (a previously neutral stimulus) followed by demands (an removal) aversive stimulus) may have led to the gloves acquiring aversive properties similar to the demand itself, “thereby becoming a CEO-R. If this is the case, one would expect the onset of the Figure 3. Depiction of the CMO-R relation. As a result of having experimenter wearing his gloves (which signals the ‘worsen- systematically preceded the onset of an aversive stimulus (such as a ing’ of the boy’s condition) to establish its own removal as an demand), the previously neutral stimulus (the experimenter wear- effective type of reinforcement and evoke aggressive behavior ing gloves) acquires aversive properties of its own, thereby becoming even in the absence of any actual demands (see Figure 3 for a a CMO-R. As such, the onset of the CMO-R (the experimenter depiction of this relation). Likewise, the offset of the experi- wearing gloves) exerts value- and behavior-altering effects, such as menter wearing his gloves (which signals the ‘improvement’ of establishing glove removal as an effective type of reinforcement and the boy’s condition) would abolish the effectiveness of its own evoking behaviors that have led to this in the past. THE MOTIVATING OPERATION 27  R1 cannot occur Evokes R1 without S2 Discriminative R1 (selecting food from fridge) stimulus for R1 S1 (Locked fridge) Value-altering effect Establishes S2 (access to a key) as a reinforcer CMO-T Behavior-altering effect Evokes R2 (behavior maintained by access to S2, such as aggression) Figure 4. Depiction of the CMO-T relation (Adapted from Michael, 1982, p. 152). An ongoing response (such as selecting food from a refrigerator) is blocked (by the presence of a lock on the refrigerator). The initial stimulus change, which would normally function as a discriminative stimulus for the now blocked response (such as the sight of the locked refrigerator), instead functions as a CMO-T. It establishes the reinforcing value of a second stimulus change (such as getting the key for the refrigerator). This CMO-T evokes a second response that has been effective in achieving this second stimulus change in the past (such as aggression). The CMO-T is conditional and would only be expected to exert any influence when an EO is in effect for the terminal response (such as when the person is ‘hungry’). as a discriminative stimulus, escape from the glove would have Tirri, & Kolberg, 2007; McGill, 1999). These interventions to be equally valuable both in the presence and absence of include delivering reinforcement for task compliance (Lalli the glove. However, the glove fails on this second condition. et al., 1999); embedding demands in the context of preferred Escape from the glove cannot function as an effective type of activities (Carr et al., 1980); using errorless learning (Ebanks reinforcement in the absence of the glove. The glove therefore & Fisher, 2003); fading instructions (Pace, Iwata, Cowdery, makes escape more valuable (not more available) and as such Andree, & McIntyre, 1993); altering the duration, rate, and functions as a CMO-R. novelty of demands (Smith, Iwata, Goh, & Shore, 1995); Several interventions are possible when a CMO-R is varying the tasks (McComas, Hoch, Paone, & El-Roy, 2000); involved in problem behavior. First, the contingency between and providing a choice of tasks (Dyer, Dunlap, & Winterling, the behavior evoked by the CEO-R (the experimenter putting 1990). on his glove) and the consequence (removal of the glove) could The Transitive CMO be eliminated. That is, problem behavior would no longer lead to the removal of the gloves. Second, the association between A transitive CMO (CMO-T) refers to stimuli in the con- the CMO-R and MO could be terminated. For example, text of which the value of existing conditioned reinforcers or the experimenter could wear his glove in both the presence punishers is altered, as is the likelihood of behaviors occurring and absence of demands. Alternatively, the demand could be that have been associated with such consequences in the past. presented regardless of whether the experimenter is wearing An example of a transitive conditioned establishing operation his glove. (CEO-T), typically seen in approaches such as incidental As Michael (2007) noted, however, such an intervention teaching (Hart & Risley, 1975), involves contriving a situation would be ineffective without attending to those aspects of the in which one stimulus increases the value of a second stimulus demand that led to the glove acquiring aversive properties in as a type of reinforcement. The second stimulus cannot be ob- the first instance. Having extinguished a CEO-R such as that tained until a given behavior has occurred (Sundberg, 1993). described above, the CEO-R relation would be expected to A CMO-T relation may be present when an ongoing response re-emerge if a neutral event is again associated with subsequent or behavior chain (such as purchasing a soft drink) is blocked worsening (e.g., through the presentation of unchanged de- or interrupted (perhaps by having the incorrect change). In mands), (McGill, 1999). A number of possible interventions such circumstances, the initial stimulus change, which would exist to attenuate the aversiveness of the original EO, such as normally function as a discriminative stimulus for the now poorly presented demands (Carbone, Morgenstern, Zecchin- blocked response (such as the sight of the machine), instead 28 THE MOTIVATING OPERATION functions as a CMO-T. It establishes the reinforcing value of complete (i.e., the sight of the lock on the refrigerator), estab- a second stimulus change (such as getting correct change for lishes social contact (i.e., the key for the lock) as an effective the machine). This CMO-T evokes a second response that type of reinforcement and evokes problem behavior that has has been effective in achieving this second stimulus change in led to attention in the past (i.e., aggression directed towards a the past (such as asking the shop assistant for some change). staff member with access to the key). Indeed, McGill (1999) The initial stimulus change (sight of the drinks machine) acts suggested that if demands were to function as a CEO-T for as a CEO-T for the second stimulus change (getting the cor- attention-maintained problem behavior, one would expect rect change) and alters behavior accordingly. The CMO-T is higher levels of such behavior in the presence of demands than conditional and would only be expected to exert any influence in the typical attention condition of the functional analysis, when an EO is in effect for the terminal response (such as a pattern of responding that corresponds to that reported by when the person is ‘thirsty’). Call et al. If the individual could complete the demand inde- pendently, it is unlikely that social contact would be established as an effective type of reinforcement. Several approaches could be taken to Several approaches could be taken to weaken the CMO-T relation when it is implicated in evoking problem behavior weaken the CMO-T relation when it (e.g., aggression that is maintained by access to a staff member with a key to the is implicated in evoking problem behavior. locked refrigerator). First, the MO that is related to the final step of the chain (e.g., access to food) could be modified. For ex- ample, providing free access to food would Such relations may be relatively commonplace in applied weaken the ability of the CEO-T to evoke problem behavior. settings. Consider an individual with developmental disabili- Second, the relation between the behavior (aggression) and its ties who lives in a residential home where access to food in the consequence (a member of staff providing a key for the lock on refrigerator is restricted by a lock on the refrigerator door. In the refrigerator) could be eliminated. Third, the CMO-T rela- such a situation, the response of independently opening the tion could be terminated. For example, staff members could refrigerator door and subsequent reinforcement, in the form of no longer have access to keys for the lock. Thus, although access to food, is unavailable. This may establish the presence aggression would still lead to contact from staff, they would of someone who can open the refrigerator door (i.e., a staff not be able to open the refrigerator. Alternatively, the relation member with the key) as an effective source of reinforcement could be terminated by using a lock that the individual could and evoke behaviors that have led to this in the past, such as easily operate without the need for a key. aggression (see Figure 4 for a depiction of this relation). In CMO-Ts also may be an important consideration when the absence of the lock on the refrigerator, the reinforcing teaching adaptive behavior, such as mands (Endicott & Higbee, value of the staff member with a key is abolished. Behaviors 2007; Hall & Sundberg, 1987; Sundberg, Loeb, Hale, & such as manding or aggression abate. Note that this relation Eigenheer, 2002) or bids for joint attention (Taylor & Hoch, is dependent on the current level of food deprivation; that is, 2008). Sundberg et al. (2002), for example, contrived CEO-Ts if food is not currently an effective reinforcer, the sight of the in order to teach mands for information in children with au- lock on the refrigerator is unlikely to exert the aforementioned tism. The experimenters gave two children with autism access effects. Indeed, not only must the EO for food be present, but to a container that contained a preferred item with which they the person must also have a history of accessing food from the could play (i.e., the container functioned as a discriminative refrigerator and a history that includes a relationship between stimulus for playing with toys). The toy was then removed locks and keys before the sight of the locked refrigerator can be (i.e., the play response was blocked) and an empty container conditioned as a CMO-T. presented to the child. The presence of the empty container Such relations may play an important role in evoking (the CEO-T) served to establish the reinforcing value of infor- problem behavior. Call, Wacker, Ringdahl, & Boelter (2005) mation regarding the location of the toys and evoked prompted demonstrated that the attention-maintained problem behavior mands for information (“Where?”). In a subsequent phase, an of one individual was evoked at consistently high levels only extra step was added to the chain, so that the adult response when diverted attention was combined with the delivery of (“I gave it to the teacher”) functioned as a CEO-T for a second demands, and problem behavior was followed by attention. It mand for information (“Who?”) by the child. Note that for the may be that the presence of demands established the reinforc- empty container to evoke mands, the hidden toys must have ing value of attention by functioning as a CEO-T. As a parallel been functioning as an effective source of reinforcement (i.e., to the locked refrigerator example, one could envisage that the the EO for the toys must have been present). onset of a demand that an individual cannot independently THE MOTIVATING OPERATION 29  Summary Fuller, P. R. (1949). Operant conditioning of a vegetative human organism. American Journal of Psychology, 62, 587-590. MOs exert a powerful influence over operant contingen- Hall, G., & Sundberg, M. L. (1987). Teaching mands by cies and are a necessary part of a complete account of human manipulating conditioned establishing operations. The behavior. Michael (1982, 1993, 2007) has provided the field Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 5, 41-53. with a means to effectively describe the influence of ‘motiva- Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Incidental teaching of language tion’ on human behavior. Scientists and practitioners interested in preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 411- in the influence of the MO should continue to rely on the 420. full conceptual system provided by Michael and colleagues in Horner, R. H., Day, H. M., & Day, J. R. (1997). Using order to describe the functional relations they uncover. Some neutralizing routines to reduce problem behaviors. Journal of elements of this system (such as the CMO) have not been Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 601-614. utilized on occasions when they seem to provide a more ac- Iwata, B. A., & Dozier, C. L. (2008). Clinical application of curate description of the facts than do alternative terms. Such functional analysis methodology. Behavior Analysis in Practice, relations appear to be relatively commonplace in applied set- 1, 3-9. tings and, as such, hold implications for behavior analysts. For Iwata, B. A., Vollmer, T. R., Zarcone, J. R., & Rodgers, T. A. practitioners, the CMO concept may provide explanations for (1993). Treatment classification and selection based on otherwise puzzling phenomena. This improved understanding behavioral function. In R. V. Houton & S. Axelrod (Eds.), may aid in the identification of effective interventions for Behavior analysis and treatment (pp. 101-125): Kluwer people who display problem behavior or have limited reper- Academic Publishers. toires of adaptive behavior. It is hoped that the current paper Keller, F. S., & Schoenfeld, W. N. (1950). Principles of psychology: A will help behavior analysts to identify the relevance of such systematic text in the science of behavior. E.Norwalk: Appleton- relations in applied contexts. Century Crofts. References Kennedy, C. H., & Meyer, K. A. (1998). Establishing operations and the motivation of challenging behavior. In L. Cameron Berg, W. K., Peck, S., Wacker, D. P., Harding, J., McComas, J., (Ed.), Antecedent control: Innovative approaches to behavioral Richman, D., et al. (2000). The effects of presession exposure support (pp. 329-334). Baltimore: Paul H Brookes. to attention on the results of assessments of attention as a Lalli, J. S., Vollmer, T. R., Progar, P. R., Wright, C., Borrero, J., reinforcer. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 463-477. Daniel, D., et al. (1999). Competition between positive and Brown, K. A., Wacker, D. P., Derby, K. M., Peck, S. M., Richman, negative reinforcement in the treatment of escape behavior. D. M., Sasso, G. M., et al. (2000). Evaluating the effects of Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 285-296. functional communication training in the presence and Langthorne, P., McGill, P., & O’Reilly, M. F. (2007). Incorporating absence of establishing operations. Journal of Applied Behavior motivation into the functional analysis of challenging behavior: Analysis, 33, 53-71. On the interactive and integrative potential of the motivating Call, N. A., Wacker, D. P., Ringdahl, J. E., & Boelter, E. W. operation. 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Establishing operations a factor in the aggressive behavior of two retarded children. and the discriminative stimulus. The Behavior Analyst, 16, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 101-117. 225-227. Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice- McGill, P. (1999). Establishing operations: Implications for the making on the serious problem behaviours of students with assessment, treatment, and prevention of problem behavior. severe handicaps. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 393-418. 515-524. Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and Ebanks, M. E., & Fisher, W. W. (2003). Altering the timing of motivational functions of stimuli. Journal of the Experimental academic prompts to treat destructive behavior maintained by Analysis of Behavior, 37, 149-155. escape. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 355-359. Michael, J. (1993). Establishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, Endicott, K., & Higbee, T. S. (2007). Contriving motivating 16, 191-206. operations to evoke mands for information in preschoolers Michael, J. (2000). Implications and refinements of the with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1, 210- establishing operation concept. Journal of Applied Behavior 217. Analysis, 33, 401-410. 30 THE MOTIVATING OPERATION Michael, J. (2007). Motivating Operations. In J. O. Cooper, T. E. Sundberg, M. L. (1993). The application of establishing Heron & W. L. Heward (Eds.), Applied behavior analysis (2nd operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 211-214. ed., pp. 374-391). NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Sundberg, M. L. (2004). A behavioral analysis of motivation O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., King, L., Lally, G., & Dhomhnaill, and its relation to mand training. In L. W. Williams (Ed.), O. N. (2000). Using brief assessments to evaluate aberrant Developmental disabilities: Etiology, assessment, intervention and behavior maintained by attention. Journal of Applied Behavior integration (pp. 199-220). Reno, NV: Context Press. Analysis, 33, 109-112. Sundberg, M. L., Loeb, M., Hale, L., & Eigenheer, P. (2002). Pace, G. M., Iwata, B. A., Cowdery, G. E., Andree, P. J., & Contriving establishing operations to teach mands for McIntyre, T. (1993). Stimulus (instructional) fading during information. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 15-29. extinction of self-injurious escape behavior. Journal of Applied Taylor, B. A., & Hoch, H. (2008). Teaching children with autism Behavior Analysis, 26, 205-212. to respond to and initiate bids for joint attention. Journal of Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 377-391. MacMillan. Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G., & Bruzek, J. (2008). Functional Smith, R. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1997). Antecedent influences on communication training: A review and practical guide. behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1, 16-23. 343-375. Smith, R. G., Iwata, B. A., Goh, H. L., & Shore, B. A. (1995). Author Note Analysis of establishing operations for self-injury maintained The paper contributed towards the first author’s doc- by escape. Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 515-535. toral dissertation. Paul Langthorne is now at the University of Birmingham, UK. ABAI 2009 Autism Conference Research to Practice: Making Real Changes in the Lives of People with Autism Now available on DVD! The DVD exposes providers of home and school-based Applied Behavior Analysis and Adults with Autism: behavior analysis services, parents and family members, Applications to Promote Competence and Quality of Life caregivers, researchers, teacher trainers, and students to Peter F. 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