Individual Differences in Behavior and Personality PDF

Individual Differences in Behavior and Personality: Set or Fluid? DENTD 1532 Melisa Alabsy, DDS, MHA Learning Objectives Define individual differences in behavior and personality. Identify various theories and models explaining individual differences. Des...

Individual Differences in Behavior and Personality: Set or Fluid? DENTD 1532 Melisa Alabsy, DDS, MHA Learning Objectives Define individual differences in behavior and personality. Identify various theories and models explaining individual differences. Describe the "Big Five" (5-Factor) personality dimensions Identify the implications of individual differences in dental practice. Apply concepts of personality into the context of healthcare delivery Session outline Personality: Definition, Development Theories on personality The 5-Factor model Personality concepts in healthcare delivery Interprofessional practice Intro: core questions How many dimensions/theoretical categories are needed to explain individual differences in personality functioning within and across cultures? How should we label them? To what extent are personality constructs related to biological variables (temperament, excitatory/inhibitory neurological systems) and to psychosocial variables (family influences, peer influences, social environment influences)? To what extent are personality dimensions/categories stable across lifespan development and across situations? Are there systematic methods for changing/building/adapting personality? Individual Differences in Behavior What are Individual Differences? Individual differences refer to the unique variations in behavior, cognition, personality, and other psychological traits among individuals. These differences are influenced by genetic factors, environmental experiences, and interactions between the two. Theories for Individual Differences 1. Trait Theory: Focuses on identifying and measuring stable traits that differentiate individuals. 2. Psychodynamic Theory: Emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts shaping behavior. 3. Social Learning Theory: Highlights the role of observational learning and social influences on behavior. 1. TRAIT THEORY Traits are enduring characteristics that influence behavior across situations. Common traits include extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. Trait assessments such as the Big Five Personality Inventory help identify individuals' trait profiles. 2. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory posits that unconscious processes drive behavior. Concepts such as the id, ego, and superego influence personality development. Personality is formed from the conflict of seeking, releasing and inhibiting behavior. Understanding unconscious motives can aid in uncovering patients' underlying concerns and fears related to dental treatment. 3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Proposed by Bandura, social learning theory emphasizes observational learning and modeling. Individuals acquire behaviors by observing others and experiencing reinforcement or punishment. Dentists can leverage social learning principles to model positive behaviors and alleviate patients' dental anxiety. Personality Definition of personality Individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving Description of an individual’s tendencies when acting or reacting to others Ongoing interaction of temperament, character and environment Development of Personality Our personalities develop around basic psychological needs: 1. need to predict our world 2. need to act within our word, with competence 3. need for acceptance from others Other needs emerge later from combination of these basic ones. As infants develop, we begin building beliefs about our world, and about our role within their world. Is the world safe? Good or bad? Can this world meet my needs? Can I act on my world to better meet my needs? The BEATS theory helps explain why way might choose a certain behavior Beliefs > Emotions > Action > Tendencies (BEATs) Personality: Visible and Invisible parts Invisible Parts (BEATs) Visible Parts Basis that drives & guides What people do: actions actions, goals The ‘personality’ people display Beliefs as they pursue their goals How something is done Choosing what to pursue Beliefs regarding abilities: Fixed or Fluid? More ‘fixed’ beliefs More ‘fluid’ beliefs If a task challenges my ability Driving belief that abilities can or sense of competence, I be developed might feel at risk I am more likely to challenge I might choose a simpler myself (risk) and face possible route (e.g. avoid task or setbacks for the benefit of modify task to fit my skills) improving/broadening my competence There are Biological and Psychosocial variables of personality Biological Temperament Excitatory/inhibitory neurological systems Psychosocial Family influences Peer influences Social environment/cultural influences Models for the development of Personality 1. Biological Model Genetic predispositions contribute to individual differences in temperament, behavior, and susceptibility to psychological disorders. Neurobiological factors such as neurotransmitter levels and brain structures influence personality traits and behavioral tendencies. 2. Environmental Model Family dynamics, cultural norms, and social experiences shape personality development. Early childhood experiences play a critical role in forming attachment styles and coping mechanisms. Environmental stressors can exacerbate or mitigate genetic predispositions toward certain behaviors. 3. Interactionist Model Recognizes the interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences in shaping personality. Individuals' responses to environmental stimuli are moderated by their genetic makeup. The interactionist perspective underscores the complexity of understanding individual differences. Factor analytic model: 5-factor model 1930’s first studied by Psychologists Allport and Odbert. Started with 18,000 words from a Webster’s dictionary that could be used to describe a person. 1960’s-1970’s: Lots of research (Air Force, NIH, with Univ of Michigan and Oregon) thousands of surveys. McCrae & Costa: “personality can be described along 5 dimensions” This model holds well across cultures, ages, and other groupings of people Favored model in personality research at this point NEO Personality Inventory Factors represent continuous dimensions 1. Openness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism “OCEAN” acronym The 5-Factor Model 1. Openness Willingness to try new activities, open to unconventional/new ideas Travel to new places Skeptical about the unknown Interest for different cultures Aversion to question status quo Questions established systems/processes 2. Conscientiousness Impulse control Dependable, orderly, persevering Low organization, Procrastinates Use paper calendar in addition to Less internal motivation phone e-calendar Organize notes by color High achieving  3. Extraversion – Introversion How do people gain energy? Extraversion Introversion Energy comes from doing Energy comes from internal activities & being around people thoughts, developing ideas Special ability to advance Special ability to pickup the projects quickly dynamics of groups or a particular situation  4. Agreeableness Degree of cooperativeness Cares deeply about people, more Low scores in agreeableness are than themselves viewed as ‘competitive’ or self- More likely to consider the feelings promoting of others before making decisions Less flexible Works well with others  5. Neuroticism Emotional stability Moods and feelings fluctuate over Mood tends to remain pretty a period of time constant Might look like: poor response to Calm, even tempered, hardy, stress, easily upset, impulsiveness could be unemotional How does a 5-Factor Psychometric testing look like? Different exercises including a Self-reporting questionnaire Test taker reads several short descriptions or adjectives, then rates the accuracy of those descriptions pertaining to their own personality using a Likert scale Results are compared to other humans that have taken the test One downside: subjects might want to manipulate answers, providing what they consider to be “desirable” responses (“Social desirability bias”) Limitations of 5-Factor tests 1. Does not address core constructs of personality beyond the level of traits 2. Cannot predict specific behavior 3. Does not provide compelling causal explanations for human behavior and experience 4. Disregards context and conditional nature of human experience 5. It is not a program for studying personality organization and integration 6. Results rely on simple, noncontingent, and implicitly comparative statements about persons. Professional applications of Psychometric testing Many organizations use these tests to help them better understand their employees, students or colleagues. Large-scale surveys (e.g. World Bank looking at the IT industry in India) help understand desirable traits of employees and education gaps, as identified by employers Allocate staff to certain tasks, work to employee’s strengths Staff development of leadership skills Professional applications of Psychometric testing Creighton Univ School of Dentistry 1964-1984 study D1-D2 students: predominant features found.. more introverts: build energy from ideas inside us, like to reflect more thinkers: analysis, categorization, evaluation more judging (i.e. decision-making ability) The 5-factor model - Takeaways It is one important model to study personality There are many personality types, all equally acceptable Positive tool that can provide us with feedback about ourselves It is not an integrative/wholistic model on personality Can provide information on a person, how to understand them better, how to support them Should not be used to: - Categorize, ‘box’, judge or blame people - Make final determinations e.g. employment  Understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences Understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences 1. The differences between “culture” at large seem bigger than actual differences between individuals within these same cultures. This relation is attributed to the idea that universal human biological predispositions are often opposed by cultural traditions, so the outcome is somewhat of a compromise between the two. Rozin, P. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. ISSN 0092-6566 2. Differences between individuals in different cultures are larger in behavior that in thoughts or feelings This is attributed to the fact that it is easier to socialize behavior than mental events. Rozin, P. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. ISSN 0092-6566 3. Many cultural differences are expressed by individuals in terms of different default responses or interpretations or preference for the same situation Dominant responses in one culture are usually a less salient part of the repertoire of individuals in another culture. Rozin, P. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. ISSN 0092-6566 4. The effect of culture and our impression of cultural differences results from the physical/social artifacts created by the culture There is a strong tendency by psychologists to under-rate or ignore the effects of the physical environment. Rozin, P. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. ISSN 0092-6566 5. In the contemporary world, differences between individuals in two cultures will be larger in older generations Cultural differences may be markedly reduced in the most recent generations, on account of globalization. Rozin, P. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. ISSN 0092-6566 Personality and our responses in different environments & Organizations Personality Characteristics in Organizations Positive Affect: an individual’s tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general Negative Affect: an individual’s tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities and provide strong cues for appropriate behavior. ‘Strong’ personalities tend to dominate in difficult situations Social Perception Interpreting information about another person. Perceiver Characteristics Target Characteristics Barriers: Familiarity with target Physical appearance Attitudes/Mood Verbal communication Selective perception Self-Concept Nonverbal cues Stereotyping Cognitive structure Intentions First-impression error Projection Self-fulfilling prophecies Social Perception interpreting information about another person Barriers Situational Characteristics Interaction context Strength of situational cues Impression Management Process by which we try to control the impression others have of us Name dropping Appearance Self-description Flattery Favors Agreement with opinion Attribution Theory Explains how individuals pinpoint the causes of their own behavior or that of others Information cues for attribution information gathering consensus distinctiveness consistency Attribution Biases Fundamental Attribution Error: Self-serving Bias: Tendency to make attributions to Tendency to attribute one’s own internal causes when focusing on successes to internal causes and someone else's behavior. one’s failures to external causes In summary It is easier for us to understand the viewpoint of people from There are real human Somebody else’s “reality” other cultures when we predispositions of manty might be the less are aware of this types, and culture is a preferred alternative circumstance and remain powerful force. from our own repertoire. open to learning and reshaping our own beliefs. Personality implications for the Dental Practice Understanding our patients All of us are different, our own personality traits might be similar or different to our patients'. Our goal as healthcare providers is to: Establish a safe and trusting relationship with our patient Listen with empathy, remain curious Find points of connection, celebrate your patient for who they are Do not categorize individuals, avoid judgment Everyone is at a different spot on their own journey Assume positive intentions Behavioral principles apply everywhere within our dental treatment Personality concepts applicable to healthcare When we assess personality, we consider how traits might predict behavioral choices for the patient: engaging in health-promoting or health- detrimental behaviors Self-efficacy: An individual's belief that they have the capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce a specific behavioral performance, confidence in the ability to control motivation, behavior, and the social environment: Examples: smoking cessation, safe sex practices, alcohol/drug usage, exercise, eating, pain control, and self-management of chronic disease, oral hygiene.  Personality concepts in healthcare delivery Clear communications according to the patient’s style Readiness to change Stages of Change aka Transtheoretical Model When patients feel comfortable and safe, they will share honestly with us their history, struggles, but also their values, dreams, goals. These concepts are critical for treatment acceptance and ultimately, improved health outcomes. Communicating respect and empathy transcend specific “personality types”.  Centering the patient as a way of practice is a basic behavioral principle Tailoring communication styles to accommodate patients' personality traits and preferences. Adapting treatment approaches based on patients' coping mechanisms and anxiety levels. Providing a supportive environment to foster positive dental experiences for all patients. COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES Utilize active listening techniques to understand patients' concerns and preferences Adjust communication styles to match patients' personalities (e.g., direct and concise vs. empathetic and reassuring) Offer clear explanations and encourage questions to alleviate anxiety and build trust. COPING MECHANISMS Assess patients' coping mechanisms and provide appropriate support. Offer relaxation techniques such as deep breathing exercises or guided imagery to reduce stress. Incorporate distractions such as music or visual aids to enhance coping during dental procedures. ANXIETY MANAGEMENT Implement behavior management techniques to address dental anxiety effectively. Gradual desensitization through exposure therapy can help patients overcome fear of dental procedures. Consider pharmacological interventions or referral to mental health professionals for severe cases of dental phobia. We will explore more on this topic in our next session.  Case Study Let's apply principles of Personality and Individual Differences in Behavior Case study - goals Let’s see explore understanding individual differences informs treatment planning and patient management. We will highlight the importance of considering personality traits, coping mechanisms, and anxiety levels in delivering personalized care.  Name: Sarah Age: 35 Occupation: Teacher Chief Complaint: Dental anxiety and fear of needles Sarah presents to the dental clinic for a routine check-up after avoiding dental visits for several years due to fear and anxiety. She reports experiencing significant distress at the thought of dental procedures, particularly injections. Sarah's dental history reveals a traumatic experience during childhood when she received a painful injection without adequate numbing. Patient assessment Personality Traits Coping Mechanisms Sarah exhibits traits of Sarah copes with her dental high neuroticism, as anxiety by avoiding dental visits evidenced by her and using distraction techniques, heightened sensitivity to dental-related stressors such as listening to music or deep and her avoidance of breathing, during appointments. dental visits. She also However, these strategies are not demonstrates always effective in managing her conscientiousness by distress. seeking professional dental care despite her fears. Patient Assessment Anxiety levels Sarah's anxiety levels are elevated when faced with dental procedures, particularly injections. Her fear of needles stems from a previous traumatic experience, leading to anticipatory anxiety and heightened physiological arousal. Treatment Planning and Patient Management 1.Establish Trust and Rapport: We will acknowledge Sarah's fears and validate her feelings, aim to create a supportive and empathetic environment. Taking our time in this first step is essential in creating a positive doctor-patient relationship. 2.Conduct Comprehensive Assessment: our goal is to understand her dental and medical history, including her previous traumatic experience. This helps identify triggers and potential coping strategies. Understanding the root causes of Sarah's anxiety informs treatment planning. Treatment Planning and Patient Management 3. Develop a Personalized Treatment Plan: Based on Sarah's individual differences, our plan will prioritize her comfort and well-being. This may include: 1.Use of non-pharmacological interventions, such as gradual desensitization and relaxation techniques, to reduce Sarah's anxiety. 2. Utilizing topical anesthesia methods to minimize discomfort during dental procedures. 3. Allowing Sarah to have control over her treatment by offering breaks or signaling when she feels overwhelmed. 4. Provide Patient Education and Support: on the dental procedures involved, addressing her concerns and answering any questions she may have. Clear and transparent communication helps alleviate anxiety and empower Sarah to participate in her care decisions. Treatment Planning and Patient Management Monitor Progress and Adjust Interventions: Regular follow-up appointments allow the dental team to monitor Sarah's progress and adjust interventions as needed. Continuously reassessing Sarah's anxiety levels and coping mechanisms ensures that her treatment plan remains tailored to her evolving needs. TAKEAWAYS Understanding individual differences in behavior is essential for providing patient- centered dental care. By incorporating insights from various theories and models, we can enhance communication, alleviate anxiety, and improve patient outcomes. By remaining aware of our own feelings, biases and reactions, and those of our patient, we begin to embrace diversity and tailor our approach to meet each patient's unique needs. References Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO PI-R professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources. Dweck, C. S. (2017). From needs to goals and representations: Foundations for a unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. Psychological Review, 124(6), 689–719. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/rev0000082 Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. Hogarth Press. McAdams DP. The five-factor model in personality: a critical appraisal. J Pers. 1992 Jun;60(2):329-61. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 6494.1992.tb00976.x. PMID: 1635046. McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60(2), 175- 215. Skinner, E. A., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). The development of coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 119-144. Turk, D. C., & Salovey, P. (1988). Coping with chronic illness and disability: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical aspects. Springer Publishing Company. Vaidya, V. A., & Duman, R. S. (2001). Depression—emerging insights from neurobiology. British Medical Bulletin, 57(1), 61-79. Redelmeier, D. A., Najeeb, U., & Etchells, E. E. (2021). Understanding Patient Personality in Medical Care: Five-Factor Model. Journal of general internal medicine, 36(7), 2111–2114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-021-06598-8 Rozin,P. Five potential principles for understanding cultural differences in relation to individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality. Volume 37, Issue 4, 2003. Pages 273-283. ISSN 0092-6566 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00566-4 McAdams DP. The five-factor model in personality: a critical appraisal. J Pers. 1992 Jun;60(2):329-61. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 6494.1992.tb00976.x. PMID: 1635046. Westerman GH, Grandy TG, Erskine CG. Personality types of dentists. Am J Dent. 1991 Dec;4(6):298-302. PMID: 1814353. This presentation may contain copyrighted material (“Material”), the use of which may not have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. 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