National Language in Africa: Lecture Slides PDF

UGRC 229 ELECTIVE Week Two: Lecture 1 The National Language Issue in Africa, Language Policy Instructor: Prof A.K. Awedoba GA: Ms Ruth Mango & Theophilus Ocansey 1 © IAS, UG, Legon, 2023  SOME READING Amonoo R....

UGRC 229 ELECTIVE Week Two: Lecture 1 The National Language Issue in Africa, Language Policy Instructor: Prof A.K. Awedoba GA: Ms Ruth Mango & Theophilus Ocansey 1 © IAS, UG, Legon, 2023  SOME READING Amonoo R.F. 1989 Language and nationhood: reflections on language situations with particular reference to Ghana. Accra: Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences (J.B. Danquah Memorial Lectures Series). Apronti, E.O. 1974 'Sociolinguistics and the question of a national language - the case of Ghana' in Studies in African Linguistics Supplement 5 p.1- 20.  Readings Cont. Smock, D. R. 1975 'Language Policy in Ghana' in Smock D. R. and K. Bentsi- Enchill (eds) The Search for National Integration in Africa. New York: The Free Press. p.161-188 See also Sakai Resources for the ff: *M. O. Attah: ‘National Lang Problems in Nigeria’  What is a National Language ? Any indigenous language that a nation state has institutionalised or adopted as its official language. National Language (NL) becomes a lingua franca in country with more than one language. Its unique status and prestige may be backed by a legal instrument. The NL can be a natural language or hybrid (i.e. Pidgin or Creole) It is possible to have more than one NL.  Uses of the National Language Medium of communication for official & public business. Dissemination of vital oral/written information throughout the country. Laws & constitutions will be written in the NL. National assemblies/parliaments may be required to use the NL in their work. The mass media [state owned ]will use the NL The NL may also become main medium of instruction in schools. National airlines in operation will make announcements in the NL and in any other international languages as is appropriate. The NL will be made to symbolise the nation and its identity and be a vehicle for the expression of the national culture. 6  Existence of a National Language does not deny people the right to continue speaking their own mother tongues even if these are difference from the National Language. 7  Distribution of National Langs West Africa - None of the indigenous languages is a full-fledged National Lang. East Africa - Tanzania has Swahili as its NL; additionally – in Kenya Swahili enjoys a unique status almost equivalent to that of a NL. - Malawi has ChiChewa as its NL – Ethiopia has Amharic as NL and Somali enjoys a comparable status in Somalia. A few other mono-lingual African countries may boast of a NL. All told, only a small sample of African  Inauspicious Environments If the circumstances are inauspicious the task of institutionalising a NL based on any one of the indigenous languages can be difficult and complicated, The problem can be aggravated by tendency for politicians to exploit ethnic and regional sentiments for  An Observation Many African countries find NL debates very sensitive and prefer to maintain a European language as the sole medium of official communication. 10  Argument for National Languages: A. Communication Needs # EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (EL) the official langs, in much of Africa, have failed to satisfy nationwide communication needs. Many Africans do not understand them well, let alone speak them fluently. - This is because ELs differ markedly from African langs thus posing learning difficulties - Unlike the African languages, native speakers of ELs are not readily available # Low school enrolment and high attrition are problematic for acquisition of Els. Many African children don’t enrol or if they do they don’t remain in school long enough to acquire good functional English or French, etc. However, Africans do acquire related African languages faster without formal/systematic schooling in these second or third languages. 12  WHY THE NEED FOR NL #. The adoption and propagation of a NL is perceived as tool for nation- building. It is felt that as common medium of communication a NL language would counteract divisive tendencies. - African languages in particular have a unifying effect on their speakers; - African languages have a solidarising  CNL as Symbol of Independence # Nations need symbols: flags, anthem, currencies, airlines etc. The NL is seen as one such symbol of identification and independence. # Continued use of European languages as official languages MAY smack of a perpetuation of the imperialism of which these languages are vestiges. Failure to elevate the status of indigenous languages is seen as acquiescence in  D. The Egalitarian Argument # Colonial languages like English, French etc. in Africa engender elitism and marginalise the majority of people who cannot speak them.  The educated elite alone are competent in these langs.  Consequently, the business of govt. is in a foreign language. There can therefore not be grassroots participation in the management of the nation since majority lack a voice. The concerns of the majority cannot therefore be addressed seriously.  Decisions and policies tend therefore to favour the elites. E. Need for Acceptable Media of Instruction in Schools and for Communication Formal education returns poor results due to teaching the pupils in languages that are very foreign to them. The best medium of Instruction would be the child’s MT or first language. Research has proved this. We cannot however develop every MT in the country; therefore one option is to have a NL which, because it is the predominant language of the community, can therefore Conditions Propitious for N- Lang Monolingual countries may more easily institutionalise a NL; multilingual nations can also do it. They could adopt one or more of their languages for this function. Conditions are auspicious if ff features exist: 1. A local language enjoys high degree of popularity & goodwill nationwide; 2. One of the languages is widely spoken as a mother tongue or serves as lingua franca; Auspicious Conditions for NL Policies 3. If one of the languages is backed by a ‘great tradition’ (i.e. a belief in a past national great- ness associated with it that majority can identify with); 4. If the language to be chosen is highly developed and resourced and is recognised international, such as Hausa, Swahili, etc. Note that AU has adopted Swahili as its language of communication. 5. If political & economic stability exists and no group feels threatened or marginalised.  Circumstances Not Auspicious for National Language 1. Nation is highly fragmented ethnically, linguistically [i.e. with high diversity index] and with serious political divisions and differences; 2. Country lacks dominant language; None of the indigenous languages is spoken by a significant number of nationals.  Inauspicious Conditions for NL 3. No single language enjoys sufficient goodwill among nationals who are not native speakers, even if dominant language exists; 5. The native languages not well-developed; not standardised: i.e. lack orthography, reference books etc. 4. Superiority complex exists, and nationals still recall historical animosities or wars fought in the past. Arguments for National Language: Why NLs are needed. Inadequacy of European colonial languages in Africa. A. Communication Needs EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (EL), the official langs in much of Africa, have failed to satisfy nation-wide communication needs. Many Africans don’t understand them well, let alone speak them fluently. Reason for this: 1. ELs differ markedly from African langs thus posing learning difficulties. More Reasons Why European Languages have failed in Africa 2. In Africa European languages are studied effectively at educational Institutions, but due to poor school enrolment & high attrition rates, many African children do not remain in school long enough to acquire good functional English or French. 3. Native speakers of these European languages are not widespread. African learn African languages faster and more easily However, Africans tend to acquire related African langs faster even without formal schooling in these 2nd or 3rd languages. Reasons: Neighbouring African languages are related, exhibit similarities, and are spoken in the local communities. Therefore, it make sense to promote the use of African National languages. Case Against National Languages: Questions asked: I NL strikes some people as an imposition not a choice. In any case Which/whose language do you imposition, given that NLs do not emerge spontaneously. Lack of a satisfactory criterion by which to select one out of many languages; Likelihood that ethnic groups whose langs haven’t been selected would be disgruntled and oppose the policy. Non-speakers will be disadvantaged and feel discriminated against due to lack of competence in the NL.  Questions II Will native speakers of selected language be willing to make compromises necessary for re-structuring the selected language to make it suitable for its new role? Finally, do Third World states have the resources (financial , etc) for promotion of the NL and will it be acceptable to use scarce resources for this objective, when there may be other pressing needs?  The Case Against NL: Summary 1. The Financial Cost of the Project is likely to be prohibitive for poor countries 2. The Mood of the People is often not favourable; 3. It is argued that NL engenders unity and solidarity. However, there are doubts about validity of these Arguments; whether NL will yield the desired results; 4. Linguistic Situations & many country Profiles are not favourable, anyway. The Case Against NL: Summary cont. 5. Fears: That NL policies might lead to demise of some minority languages 6) Fears: possibility of international & technological isolation in a global world 7. Fears: Sitting govts. losing power if they tried to implement NL policies.  Maps and Profiles Consider African countries such as: Cote d’Ivoire Nigeria Cameroon Do their linguistic profiles augur well for adoption of National Language policies? How about their economic and political profiles? Consider the linguistic Geography of Cote d’Ivoire  C-Ivoire remains purely Francophone. The French believed in "Assimilation“ which aimed to implant French culture and civilisation while suffocating a colony’s culture. They differed from the English in this. The French did not develop the African languages of their colonies. Cote d’Ivoire is also home to many languages as the map below shows. Ivorian languages by Language Groups  Profile of Cote d’Ivoire Has over 78 indigenous languages and about 92 ethnicities; CI has high diversity index of 0.917 French is the official language. Languages are mostly Niger-Congo - 4 big sub-families Kwa 42%, Gur 17.6%, Mende 26.5% & Kru 11% Main language groups: Baoulé (centre 23%), Agni (east), Senufo (north), Dioula [Jula] (northwest and west), Bété (centre-west), Dan-Yacouba (west). Note: Migrants from W-African states account for up to 40% of population. Cote d’Ivoire has been unstable politically since the late 1990s, and almost broke up.  The Profile of Cameroon Population - over 16.3 million as at 2004 Colonised by the Germans, then by the French and English. Divisions - Anglo-phone and Franco-phone sections, with the Anglophones in minority. Living languages 279 (Ethnologue) Diversity Index - very high, 0.94. Lang. Families: Most languages are of Niger-Congo and fall within following sub-branches of N-C: Atlantic, Volta-Congo, Adamawa-Ubangi and Bantoid. But N-C is not the only Lang Family found in Cameroon.  Profile Cameroon cont. Afro-Asiatic LANGS of Chadic group are also found in Cameroon. Major Languages of Cameroon: *Beti and its related cousins/dialects are spoken by about 2 million. *Fulfulde [spoken by Fulani] is Mother Tongue to about 7% of population, but if its second language speakers are included the total reaches 5 ml. Official languages - French and English. Cameroonian pidgin is spoken by over 2 ml. speakers.  Questions for Countries like Cote d’Ivoire and Nigeria 1. Is it wise to opt for a National Language, and if so what type of NL policy? 2. What would be the benefits of a NL policy? 3. What would be the drawbacks/ disadvantages? 4. If such countries were intent on introducing the policy what should they do to make the policy feasible? 5. Understanding the Linguistic Profile of country and its political and economic realities might help policy makers adopt meaningful language policy decisions.  Nigeria’s Chances The country has many languages (500+) and these are by no means small in size. The diversity index is 0.866. The languages are drawn from different families- Bantu, Nilo-Saharan, Afro Asiatic. The country has serious economic and political problems and jihadist issues. It is Anglophone and uses English as its official language. A type of Pidgin English is used widely in Nigeria. Main languages are Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo. Nigeria’s Languages at 2021 Hausa was used by 0ver 48m. was the most widely spoken local language. Followed by Yoruba (39.5m), Nigerian Pidgin (30m), Igbo (27m). Fulfulde (22m), which registered approximately 39.5 million, 30 English, the official language, had 60 million speakers. Language groups of Nigeria  Possible Implications of High Linguistic Diversity Nationwide Communication Difficulties: People have to learn several languages to be able to communicate with their countrymen. It may also compel the promotion of foreign languages like the European languages, if there is no one outstanding language or lingua franca. Development can be affected in diverse ways if communication difficulties exist and are not properly addressed  Questions for Countries like Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria and Togo Cost-benefit Analysis: what are the possible benefits & drawbacks of NL policy in each of these countries? Does popular mood favour such a policy? If these countries wished to introduce NL policies, what should they do to make policy feasible? Understanding Linguistic Profile of a country, its political and economic realities helps policy makers adopt meaningful language policy decisions.