Applied Behavior Analysis, Chapter 19, Equivalence-based Instruction PDF

Applied Behavior Analysis Third Edition Chapter 19 Equivalence-based Instruction Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Ed...

Applied Behavior Analysis Third Edition Chapter 19 Equivalence-based Instruction Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives Section 1. Foundations B. Concepts and Principles B-10 Define and provide examples of stimulus control B-15 Define and provide examples of derived stimulus relations Section 2. Applications G. Behavior-Change Procedures G-10 Teach simple and conditional discriminations G-12 Use equivalence-based instruction G-21 Use procedures to promote stimulus and response generalization Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Equivalence-Based Instruction Behavior analytic research on stimulus equivalence explores how a person’s experience with the environment establishes or changes the function of symbols One of the most significant characteristics of equivalence- based instruction (EBI) is its generativity – A small amount of explicit instruction can yield an extensive and predictable network of new relations that were not directly targeted by the teaching Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Foundations and Core Concepts Stimulus equivalence – The behavior analytic approach to symbolic function – Occupied much attention across the domains of basic experimental, conceptual, and applied behavior analytic science Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Pioneering Research on Symbolic Stimulus Relations Sidman, 1971; Sidman & Cressan, 1973 – Participants were three institutionalized young men with severe intellectual disabilities with no developed reading skills What was taught – Used a matching-to-sample procedure ▪ Each trial began with the presentation of 1 of 20 spoken words (sample stimuli) ▪ Participant required to indicate the spoken word was noticed (observing response) – Resulted in presentation of eight drawings (comparison stimuli) ▪ Participant required to select the drawing that corresponded to the spoken word – Resulted in AB conditional discrimination Selection of the appropriate B comparison stimulus is demonstrated reliably in the present of each A sample Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Was Learned Probe trials used to distinguish if participants acquired skills or simply learned the rote pairings – Presented in the matching-to-sample format – No programmed consequences ▪ Presented under extinction conditions, which allowed interpretations in terms of symbolic, or true matching, function – Presented new combinations of sample and comparison stimuli that were never encountered during training Consistent patterns of responding observed on the probes (in the absence of reinforcement) could be described as emergent stimulus relations (or derived stimulus relations) Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Four Critical Types of Probe Trials in Equivalence Studies Reflexivity tested by probes for generalized identity matching – A=A Symmetry probe trials reverse the roles of the stimuli presented as sample and comparison during training – If A=B, then B=A; if A=C, then C=A Transitivity probe trials test for relations between stimuli that were never presented together during training but that share a trained relation with a nodal stimulus – If A=B, and if B=C, then A=C A combined test for equivalence – When both symmetry and transitivity hold, C=A Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Equivalence-Class Formation Successful performance on probe trials of all three types – reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity (or combined tests for equivalence) – in the absence of reinforcement Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 19.3 Schematic Representation of the Trained and Tested Conditional Discriminations Solid arrows indicate trained relations, and dashed arrows indicate tested relations. The arrows point from sample stimuli to comparison arrays. Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Why It Mattered New forms of stimulus control were created that had never been targeted directly by the teaching procedures – Production of reliable and predictable patterns of novel stimulus-control relations not based on physical similarities across the stimuli (not primary stimulus generalization) Potential for utilizing an equivalence approach to promote teaching efficiency The equivalence outcome captured the essence of what is meant when we speak of a “symbol” With equivalence procedures, novel behavior is illustrated reliably and in predictable patterns by the emergent performances on probe trials Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Continued Development of Equivalence Research: Key Outcomes Obtained with Equivalence Approaches Key outcomes of stimulus equivalence identified: – Class formation – Expansion and merger – Transfer of function – Contextual control Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Class Formation The outcome of primary importance is demonstration of the emergent performances that indicate stimulus interchangeability and the formation of equivalence classes Most common measure of class formation has been the percentage of probe trials on which a comparison selection is consistent with equivalence for each defining property – Equivalence outcomes may be observed immediately or delayed ▪ Delayed emergence is when probe responses become increasingly consistent with class formation as testing continues Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Class Expansion and Class Merger (1 of 2) Minimum number of members necessary to demonstrate all equivalence properties is three members (e.g., spoken word, picture, written word) Classes can be increased to include a potentially unlimited number of members – As class size increases, the number of generative or emergent performances also grows exponentially Class expansion – A new member is added to demonstrated equivalence classes by teaching a new conditional discrimination – One member from each original class serves as either sample or comparison in the new training, and a novel stimulus set serves in the alternative role Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Class Expansion and Class Merger (2 of 2) Class merger – Independent equivalence classes can be combined to produce a larger class by teaching a new but interrelated conditional discrimination Few limits have been identified for the size of equivalence classes that can be generated through expansion or merger Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Transfer of Function When a group of stimuli are said to be equivalent, each of the stimuli will function in the same manner: each is interchangeable with any other The transfer-of-function effect has been demonstrated in a great many ways, shapes, and forms, and for many different stimulus functions Transfer of function is among the most important advantages of classes or categories – Once a class has formed, anything new learned about one member of the class can hold for all members of the class, without additional training Accounted for from the perspective of equivalence in terms of class merger (e.g., between the established equivalence class members and the class of stimuli that serves a particular function) Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Contextual Control Class composition can shift depending on the context – The same stimuli can be members of different classes, depending on the context Contextual control is the result of a more complex teaching arrangement known as a five-term contingency – Match-to-sample performances are brought under the control of an additional antecedent stimulus ▪ Selecting a given comparison stimulus is reinforced in the presence of a particular sample in one condition (i.e., Context 1), while selecting a different comparison stimulus in the presence of the same sample is reinforced in a different condition (i.e., Context 2) ▪ The correct match depends on the sample stimulus presented and also on the context Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Designing Equivalence-Based Instruction A number of training and testing variables are important for the successful generation of equivalence classes A series of decisions need to be made in planning effective procedures for equivalence-based instruction (EBI) Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 19.1 Equivalence-Based Instruction Design Decisions I. Training Considerations A. What stimuli will be used and how many? B. How will the stimuli be presented? C. Will a sample- or comparison-observing response be required? D. What instructions will be given? E. How will balanced trials arrangements be ensured? F. Are special training steps needed? G. What training structure will be used? H. What mastery (accuracy) criteria will be used for training? I. How will consequences be scheduled during training? II. Testing Considerations A. How will the probe trials be presented? B. How will the consequences be scheduled C. How will the probe-trial types be ordered? D. What will the criteria for equivalence-class formation? Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Training Baseline Conditional Discriminations The most common approach involves teaching a minimum of two interrelated conditional discriminations with the matching-to-sample procedure Arranging these four-term contingencies requires a number of methodological choices including: – Selection and presentation of stimuli – Observing responses – Instructions – Trial-type arrangements and sequences – Instructional programming – Training structure – Mastery (accuracy) criteria – Consequence delivery Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Selecting and Presenting Stimuli (1 of 2) The choice of stimuli will depend on the nature of the skills being targeted – A wide range of stimulus types has been used effectively in equivalence research The number of stimuli used will depend on the participant population and instructional goals – A reasonable starting point for teaching a first conditional discrimination is three different sample stimuli across trials with different comparison stimuli on each trial ▪ A complete demonstration of all three properties of equivalence (reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity) requires a minimum of two interrelated conditional discriminations with at least three stimulus sets Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Selecting and Presenting Stimuli (2 of 2) EBI is flexible with mode of stimulus presentation – Examples: Computerized matching-to-sample procedures, “table-top procedures”, pictures on a page of a binder Flexibility in stimulus-presentation modality allows the EBI approach to be adapted to a given setting or participant Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Observing Responses Control by sample stimulus is critical to the acquisition of conditional discriminations in a matching-to-sample procedure Standard practice is to require the participant to make an observing response to the sample stimulus once it is presented – The sample-observing response results in presentation of the comparison stimuli and the opportunity to access reinforcers – Designed to increase the likelihood that the participant will notice the sample – Decreases the likelihood of a participant making choices impulsively, without viewing each of the alternatives Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Task Instructions Task instructions in conditional discrimination training have varied from simple to more detailed depending on instructional goals and the participants involved Trained conditional discriminations should be maintained once instructional prompts are removed Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arranging Trial Types and Sequences Balance composition of trial types as well as the order in which those trial types are presented within a block of trials – Prevents competing stimulus control from interfering with conditional discrimination acquisition Standard practices to ensure stimulus-control: – Trial types should be presented the same number of times within a training block – Position of the comparison stimuli should be counterbalanced across trials – Position of the correct (S+) comparison stimulus should be counterbalanced across trials – Set limit on the number of consecutive trials allowed within a block Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Instructional Programming and Training For some participants, teaching techniques in addition to the matching- to-sample reinforcement contingencies are necessary to produce mastery of conditional discriminations – Examples: Prompting procedures, modeling correct choices, correction procedures Some approaches have incorporated a systematic introduction of specific training-trial types designed to target particular dimensions of conditional control – Teaching the component simple discriminations – Stimulus-control shaping – Exclusion training – Programmed introduction of multiple conditional discriminations Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Teaching the Component Simple Discriminations Accurate conditional discriminations performances require two different types of simple discrimination, in addition to conditional control by the sample – Successive discrimination between the sample stimuli ▪ Presented sequentially across trials – Simultaneous discrimination between the comparison stimuli ▪ Presented together as the choice array on a given trial Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stimulus-Control Shaping Resembles fading or errorless discrimination procedures – First, teaches an easily acquired discrimination – Then, shifts gradually to a more difficult arbitrary conditional discrimination – Matching-to-sample serves as starting point for both Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Exclusion Training Approach to teaching a new arbitrary conditional discrimination based on exclusion – Novel comparison stimulus will be selected over a known one in the presence of a novel sample Once demonstrated through exclusion, conditional control by the sample is maintained when the new relation is presented together with other samples and comparisons from the training set Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sequential Versus Simultaneous Introduction of Multiple Conditional Discriminations Sequential – Establishing a first arbitrary relation allows for rapid acquisition of those taught later (a learning-set outcome) – Teach each conditional discrimination independently, then intermix the trial types within a single trial block – A next conditional discrimination could then be trained in isolation and subsequently added to a mix of trials Simultaneous – Introduce the mix of trial types from multiple conditional discriminations from the start of training – Can save training time Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Training Structures (1 of 2) Teaching multiple conditional discriminations requires decisions about – The specific sample-comparison combinations – The manner in which the different conditional discriminations will be interrelated The training structure is the dimensions of the teaching arrangement – One stimulus set (nodal stimulus or node) must be held in common across a minimum of two conditional discriminations to provide a basis for all equivalence properties Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Training Structures (2 of 2) Different training structures – One-to-many training (also known as sample-as-node training) ▪ One set of sample stimuli is trained with multiple sets of comparison stimuli – Many-to-one (or, comparison-to-node training) structure ▪ Multiple sets of sample stimuli are trained with a single set of comparisons ▪ The comparison stimuli thus serve as node – Linear series training ▪ Comparison stimuli from one conditional discrimination serve as sample stimuli in the next Best selection will depend on factors such as: – Type of stimuli to be used – Instruction goals of the EBI program Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 19.15 A Schematic Representation of Three Different Training Structures Three conditional discriminations are represented for each structure, by presenting one stimulus from each of four sets (A, B, C, and D). The one-to-many (or sample-as-node) structure is presented in the left column, the many-to-one (or comparison-as-node) structure in the middle, and the linear series structure on the right Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mastery (Accuracy) Training EBI programs incorporate predetermined accuracy or mastery criteria – Must be met in each phase of training before moving on to the next Typically overall accuracy is measured for each trial block – Defined as number of trials on which the S+ comparison is chosen divided by the total number of trials in the block Mastery criteria are typically set at a relatively high accuracy percentage and are often required for more than one consecutive trial block Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scheduling Consequences During Training Choose an appropriate and effective reinforcer for E BI training is subject to the same considerations that would hold for any applied behavior analysis program Some programs include mild punishers for S- selections – Provides a basis for discrimination between incorrect responses and the mere absence of a reinforcer Before moving from continuous reinforcement to tests for the properties of equivalence, arrange intermittent reinforcement Probe trials are typically presented in extinction, to allow for interpretations of emergent versus directly trained relations Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Testing Protocols Careful consideration is warranted for procedural details including – Presentation and order of probe trials – Consequence scheduling – Criteria for equivalence-class formation Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Composition of Probe-Trial Blocks Two general methods are used for presenting probe trials – Massed testing ▪ Trial block is composed of probe trials only – Interspersing probe trials with baseline-trial types ▪ Block includes probe trials as well as each of the baseline training trial types presented in a semi- randomized order Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scheduling Consequences During Testing When baseline-trial types have been included as part of test sessions, decisions must be made about scheduling consequences for those trials – In some programs, consequences are programmed for a portion of the baseline trials – In others, extinction conditions are in effect for all trial types (baselines and probes) Programming consequences for probe trials – Majority of EBI has presented all probe trials under extinction conditions – An alternative strategy arranges reinforcers for probe responses consistent with equivalence-class formation Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Order One common practice in EBI is to present only one probe type (i.e., reflexivity, symmetry, transitivity and/or combined equivalence) per test-trial block Simple-to-complex testing protocol – Recommended for EBI with young children or individuals with intellectual disabilities – Probe types are introduced sequentially, beginning with symmetry, followed by transitivity, and then combined tests for equivalence – Has been shown to increase the likelihood of strong equivalence outcomes Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Judging Class Formation When expected emergent performances are not demonstrated immediately, several different strategies have proven helpful – Repeated presentation of the probe blocks – Re-exposure to the training blocks – Training or testing modifications that target particular forms of competing stimulus control Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Procedural Variations Teaching a minimum of two conditional discriminations in the match-to-sample format provides the core prerequisites for assessing equivalence-class formation Alterative training approaches: – Use of compound stimuli – Class-specific reinforcement – Simple discrimination training Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Compound Stimuli Presenting a stimulus compound as the sample – Each component of the compound can come to function as an independent equivalence-class member Training results in many more emergent relations and larger equivalence classes Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Class-Specific Reinforcement Correct comparison choice and type of consequence delivered is conditional on the sample stimulus Important findings: – Differential outcomes can facilitate the acquisition of conditional discrimination – Class-specific consequences themselves become members of the equivalence classes Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Three-Term Contingency Training Simple discrimination training – A possible method of generating equivalence classes for young children and individuals with developmental delays ▪ Simple discriminations are typically acquired with ease – Demonstrates the efficiency of EBI for producing generative and functional symbolic skills Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications and Generality (1 of 2) Equivalence-based applications for children and adults with intellectual disabilities and young typically developing children include – Language-skills training – Number-skills instruction – Other functional skills ▪ Music skills ▪ Activity schedules ▪ PECS ▪ Academic content ▪ Promoting generalization after teaching functional skills ▪ Facilitating skills related to sensory deficits Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications and Generality (2 of 2) Equivalence-based applications for adult clinical populations include – Individuals with acquired brain injury – Field of gerontology – Health care domain Equivalence-based applications in the college classroom include – Teaching university-course content – Extending the generality of the instructional approach to ▪ More complex stimulus sets ▪ A sophisticated group of learners ▪ New settings and subject matters Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications Stemming from Alternative Theoretical Approaches to Relational Responding The two most prominent alternate theoretical approaches are: – Naming Theory – Relational Frame Theory (RFT) In both, emergent or derived responding is seen as learned behavior, rather than as a direct outcome of a reinforcement contingency Emphasis is placed on training that produces a generalized or higher-order operant class – Higher-order operants are defined in terms of general relations between antecedents and responses, rather than in terms of specific stimuli and responses ▪ Any given instance of antecedent control is seen as just one example of a more general relation (e.g., generalized imitation, manding, instruction following) – Requires multiple-exemplar training Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Naming Theory Naming is the technical term for a higher-order operant in which an individual engages in bidirectional speaker and listening behavior with respect to a given object or event – Each component of the cycle needs to be directly taught and with many different stimuli, or exemplars Naming is viewed as classifying, so that any two or more items or events with the same name would be treated similarly – Would occasion the same tacts and thus the same listener behaviors – Seen as responsible for categorization, equivalence performances, and various forms of transfer of function Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 19.29 An illustration of the naming relation, where hearing “shoe” occasions listener behavior (e.g., orienting toward any of a number of different shoes), which in turn occasions tacting “shoe.” The naming unit could be initiated from any point in the cycle. Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Relational Frame Theory Framing is viewed as the key higher-order operant, and is characterized as responding to one stimulus in terms of another Emphasizes that we learn many different types of relations in our lives, each of which can be considered a frame in that any pair of stimuli can function within it – Equivalence is just one of many frames (coordination) RFT introduces generic terms for the critical properties of framing – Mutual entailment – Combinatorial entailment – Transformation of function RFT emphasizes the critical role of contextual stimuli to indicate exactly which relation should be applied in any given instance Framing is viewed as the basic behavioral unit not only for language but also of almost all complex cognitive functioning for humans Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. Copyright © 2020, 2007, 1990 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved