Anatomy and Physiology Prelims PDF

ANAPHY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PROF. BERNARD S. BARRANCO _______________________________________________________________________________________...

ANAPHY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PROF. BERNARD S. BARRANCO ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ PRELIMS OUTLINE I. Anatomy & Physiology: An Introduction to The B. PHYSIOLOGY Human Body The study of how body structures function as a whole. A. Anatomy ➜ Science of body functions B. Physiology ➜ Normal adult physiology & how some genetic variations C. Structural Organization of Matter occur D. Basic Life Processes ➜ Greek words meaning to physio - NATURE , ology - E. Survival Needs STUDY OF F. Homeostasis (Basic Life Processes) G. Feedback Systems H. Homeostatic Imbalances SUBDIVISIONS OF PHYSIOLOGY II. Anatomical Positions Cell physiology - is the study of the behavioral A. Directional Terms structure and the characteristics of every cell of the B. Basic Anatomical Terminology human body. C. Body Planes or Section Systems physiology - is the overall function of each D. Body Cavities body part of the system. E. Organ System Pathophysiology - is the ability to identify if any body III. Anaphy Lab Ex. 2-8 A. Surface Landmarks parts of the condition is related to any form of a B. Body Cavity pathology condition or sickness and disease. C. Abdominopelvic Cavity Quadrants & Exercise physiology - is more of the kinetic physiology Regions or movement of the body. D. Major Systems and Organs Neurophysiology - is pertaining to the neurological E. Parts of The Microscope function of the human body that pertains to the F. Isotonic, Hypotonic, & Hypertonic nervous system. G. Experimentation IV. References Endocrinology - is pertaining to the neurological V. Trans Authorship function of the human body that pertains to the nervous system. I. ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: AN Cardiovascular physiology - is the study of dealing INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY with the cardiovascular system together with the heart and blood vessels able to deliver or transport those The Anatomy and Physiology is designed to let the student oxygenated blood, hormones, nutrients, and their familiar with the basic anatomical structure of the human body. capability to excrete the body waste coming from the Students will learn what the various organs of the body do to other system. contribute to the overall physiology of the body as well as the Immuno-physiology - is the study of how the immune interaction between them.. system affects the human body. A. ANATOMY Respiratory physiology - is about the gas exchange The study of structures and the relationships among and how this affects it in correlation with the system. structures. Renal physiology (release or reabsorbed byproducts) ➔ Science of structure - is related to how the renal system acts on the ➔ Relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart) excretion of those metabolic waste of the body. ➔ Imaging techniques Reproductive physiology - is correlated to the creation ➔ Greek words meaning to CUT (“tomy”) APART (“ana”) of the new offspring likewise with secondary characteristics that the male and female human being gain during their periods of development. SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY 1. Gross anatomy ( macroscopic anatomy) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND the study of large, easily observable structures (by PHYSIOLOGY naked eye), such as the heart or bone Anatomy and Physiology are always related 2. Microscopic anatomy (cytology–cells, Structure determines what functions can take place histology–tissues) Well organized unit to make body operate as a whole the study of large, easily observable structures (by naked eye), such as the heart or bone 1  RESPONSIVENESS / IRRITABILITY C. STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATON OF MATTER Ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal and CHEMICAL LEVEL external environment ○ Atoms: (protons, Neutron, Electron) ○ Molecules: Two or more atoms joined together by either ➜ Nervous system - nerve cells and endings produce covalent or ionic bonds electrical impulses to alert the body of the different stimuli internally & externally, allowing the body’s fast reaction/ ➜ 4 BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT ORGANIC response. MOLECULES IN THE HUMAN BODY 1. Proteins: (20 different amino acids) MOVEMENT 2. Complex carbohydrates: (simple sugars) Activities promoted by muscular and skeletal system ( 3. Nucleic acids: (nucleotides) propelling, walking, swimming) 4. Lipids: (fatty acids and glycerol) Movement of blood, foodstuff and urine (cardiovascular, digestive and urinary) CELLS Occurs at the intracellular, cellular, organ levels ○ Smallest structure and functional units of the human body. GROWTH TISSUES Increase in number of cells, size of cells, tissues, organs, ➜ Group of cells and the materials surrounding them that and the body. Single cell to multicellular complex organism work together to perform a specific function. Single cell to multicellular complex organism: ➜ Normal Function: Cell constructing activities ORGANS ➜ Formation of Disease: cell destructive activities (i.e. ➜ Composed of two or more tissues work together to Cancer Cells) provide specific functions and they usually have specific shapes. Hormone - role in directing growth (Gives Male and Female Characteristics) ORGAN SYSTEM Cancer Therapies & Treatment: kills affected cells/ cancer ➜ Makes up the composition of the human body; consists of cells & normal healthy cells; detrimental one or more organs working for a common function. DIFFERENTIATION ▪ Integumentary System Skeletal System ▪ Muscular System Process a cell undergoes to develop from unspecialized to ▪ Nervous System specialized cell ▪ Endocrine System Cardiovascular System ▪ Lymphatic System REPRODUCTION ▪ Respiratory System Production of offspring ▪ Digestive System Organismal level ▪ Urinary System ➜ Formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, ▪ Reproductive System or the production of new individual cells D. BASIC LIFE PROCESSES E. SURVIVAL NEEDS Nutrients DIGESTION ➜ Food is used for energy and cell building Process of breaking down ingested food into simple ➜ Carbohydrates (FUEL); Proteins (BUILD); Fats molecules that can be absorbed by the blood. (RESERVE) ➜ Bolus: mechanically broken down food mixed (chewing) Oxygen with saliva that is ready for swallowing ➜ Chemical reaction to release energy – REQUIRES OXYGEN (oxygenation) METABOLISM ➜ Human cell needs oxygen to SURVIVE (essential for Sum of all biochemical processes of cells, tissues, organs, production of ATP) and organ systems. Water Catabolic/ Breaking down of complex substances into ➜ 60%-80% body composition simpler building blocks. ➜ Fuel base for body SECRETION and EXCRETION Using nutrients and oxygen to produce adenosine Body Temperature triphosphate (ATP). ➜ Below 37 degrees centigrade (98 degrees fahrenheit) – Respiratory (oxygen) and Digestive System (nutrients). metabolic reaction becomes slower ➜ High body temperature – RAPID chemical reaction – EXCRETION HIGHER metabolic rate Removing excreta / waste from the body ➜ Either extreme (Hypo/hyperthermia) — DEATH occurs Digestive / urinary / integumentary system (sweat) Atmospheric Pressure ➜ Force exerted on the surface of the body by the weight of air 2  ➜ Breathing: exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide ▪ If you accidentally hold a hot object, the receptor ▪ Higher atm pressure = higher degree of O2 already detected the pain and immediately sent depletion messages to the control center. This control center will immediately say to move away or move our hands. Via F. HOMEOSTASIS (BASIC LIFE PROCESSES) the effector, you remove your hands. (HOMEO = Same, STASIS = Standing Still) A dynamic condition in response to changing conditions. G. FEEDBACK SYSTEMS Continually being disrupted by: ➜ External Stimuli: Intense heat, cold, and lack of oxygen NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM ➜ Internal Stimuli: Psychological stresses; Exercise Shut off/ Decrease stimulus Disruptions are usually mild and temporary: The net effect of the response to the stimulus is to either ➜ If homeostasis is not maintained, can lead to DISEASE shut off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity and DEATH may result ➜ Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment produced POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM by the interaction or organs system and regulatory Enhancing process (feedback systems) Rare in the body because they tend to increase the original The two body systems that largely control the body’s disturbance (stimulus) and to push the variable farther from homeostasis state: its original value ➜ Nervous system: senses stimuli These mechanisms control infrequent events that occur ➜ Endocrine system: delivery of important hormones explosively and do not require continuous adjustments H. HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disease and death: EXAMPLE: breathing ➜ Disorder is a general term for any change or abnormality External Stimuli are internal processes that go inside our of function body. ➜ Disease is a more specific term for an illness Internal Stimuli excessive exercise can alter our vital signs. characterized by a recognizable set of signs and Homeostatic Imbalances occur because of disruptions symptoms from the external or internal environment. ▪ A local disease is one that affects one part or a limited ○ Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system and region of the body endocrine system, acting together or independently. ▪ A systematic disease affects either the entire body or ○ The nervous system detects changes and sends nerve several parts impulses to counteract the disruption. ▪ Signs are objective changes that a clinician can ○ The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by observe and measure; e.g., fever or rash secreting hormones. ▪ Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions ▪ whereas nerve impulses cause rapid changes. that are not apparent to an observer; e.g., headache or Hormones usually work more slowly nausea ▪ Examples: CO2, O2, Temperature, pH, Blood Pressure ➜ Diagnosis is the art of distinguishing one disease from another or determining the nature of a disease; a EXAMPLES OF HOMEOSTASIS: FLUID BALANCE IN diagnosis is generally arrived at after the taking of a THE BODY medical history and the administration of a physical Compartments for Body Fluids: examination ➜ Male — 40% solid, 60% liquid ➜ Female — 45% solid, 55% liquid II. ANATOMICAL POSITIONS ▪ Intracellular - Inside the cell Is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that ▪ Extracellular - Outside of the cell. You can find fluid in allows precise and consistent anatomical references. your interstitial fluid and your plasma. Note: When in the anatomical position, the subject stands: COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK LOOP / MECHANISM - Standing upright Receptor - Facing the observer, head level - Eyes facing forward ➜ Monitors a controlled condition - Feet flat on the floor ➜ Responds to STIMULI along the AFFERENT pathway - Arms at the sides ▪ Afferent - Outside stimuli ➞ Control Center - Palms turned forward (ventral) ▪ Efferent - Control center ➞ Effector Control Center A. DIRECTIONAL TERMS ➜ Analyze and determines the next appropriate action One body structure is in relation to the other. Effector ➜ Superior ➜ Receives directions from the control center ▪ “Cranial” or “Cephalad” ➜ Produces a response that changes the controlled ▪ Towards the head end or upper part of a structure or condition the body. ➜ Fight/ Flight response ▪ Example: 3  - The forehead is SUPERIOR to the nose - The eyebrows are superior to the eyes. Inferior ▪ “Caudal” ▪ Away from the head or towards the lower part of a structure or the body. Supine Position ▪ Example: ➜ the body is lying face up - The navel is INFERIOR to the breastbone - The mouth is inferior to the forehead. B. BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY Anterior (Ventral) ▪ “Anterior” ▪ Towards or at the front of the body. ▪ Example: - The breastbone is ANTERIOR to the spine - The nose is anterior to the ears. Posterior (Dorsal) ▪ “Back of” or behind/ on the back” ▪ Example: - The heart is POSTERIOR to the breastbone. - The spine is posterior to the lungs. Lateral ▪ Away from the midline of the body. ▪ “Outer side” ▪ Example: - The arms are LATERAL to the chest - The shoulders are lateral to the spine. Medial ▪ Toward the midline of the body. ▪ “Inner side” ▪ Example: - The heart is MEDIAL to the arm - The nose is medial to the ears. Intermediate ▪ Between a more medial and a more lateral structure ▪ Example: - The collarbone is INTERMEDIATE between the breastbone and the shoulders Proximal ▪ Nearest point of attachment to limb or structure. ▪ Example: - The elbow is PROXIMAL to the wrist (Elbow is closer to the shoulder) - The knee is proximal to the knees Distal ▪ Farthest away from the point of attachment or origin ▪ Example: - The knee is DISTAL to the thigh - The fingers are distal to the elbow. Superficial ▪ Nearest to the surface (or outside) of the body ▪ Example: - The skin is superficial to the liver - The muscles are superficial to the bones Deep ▪ Away from the outside of the body ▪ Internal ▪ Example: The liver is deep to the rib cage The brain is deep to the skull. Prone Position ➜ The body is lying face down 4  C. BODY PLANES OR SECTION These terms are used for planes or sections that cut the body, organs, tissues, or cells Sagittal Plane ➜ It ruins vertically from top to bottom, and it divides the D. BODY CAVITIES body into a left and right portion ➜ Parasagittal Plane APPENDICULAR portion Sagittal planes that are uneven (not down the ➜ Upper and lower limbs midline) are called parasagittal planes AXIAL portion ➜ Head, neck, and trunk ➜Midsagittal Plane Viscera If the sagittal plane runs directly down the midline ➜ Organs called within dorsal and ventral cavities of the body, it is called a "midsagittal plane" or median plane) BODY CAVITY Frontal Plane ➜ The frontal (or coronal) plane will literally leave you with a front and back portion. Dorsal Body Cavity ➜ a plane that runs vertically from top to bottom, and it ➜ Cranial Cavity divides the body in to a front (anterior) side and a Space inside the BONY SKULL back (posterior) side. BRAIN ➜ Anterior and Posterior. ➜ Spinal Cavity CUT ALONG THE Extend from the Cranial Cavity to the end of the LENGTHWISE(Longitudinal) PLANE OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN. THE BODY DIVIDING THE BODY INTO SPINAL CORD ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR PARTS Ventral Body Cavity Transverse (or Horizontal) Plane ➜ LARGER than the dorsal cavity ➜ This is the only horizontal plane, and it divides the ➜ Contains structure within the CHEST and ABDOMEN body into a top (Superior) and bottom (inferior) ➜ Thoracic Cavity (Superior) portion. Major Organs – HEART and LUNGS ➜ Superior and Anterior RIB CAGE Oblique Planes MEDIASTINUM ➜ a plane that is any type of angle other than – central region horizontal or vertical angle. – Contains the Heart, Trachea ➜ "oblique" means that something is not parallel or at – Separates the LUNG in left and right cavity a right angle. An easy way to remember this is to Pleura remember "obliques are odd angles." – The thoracic cavity is lined with this. – the parietal pleura lines the cavities while the visceral pleura covers the lungs. A thin layer of serous fluid separates the two layers. Pericardium – It surrounds the heart – The visceral 5  –pericardium covers the heart and the parietal RIGHT and LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC pericardium makes up an outer sac. Serous ➜ Lateral to the epigastric region fluid separates the two layers. ➜ Contains the lower rib (chondro- cartilage) DIAPHRAGM – dome-shape muscle ➜ Abdominopelvic Cavity (Inferior) Superior Abdominal Cavity QUADRANTS – STOMACH, LIVER, INTESTINES Inferior Pelvic Cavity Right Upper Quadrant – REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS, BLADDER AND Right Lower Quadrant RECTUM Left Upper Quadrant Peritoneum Left Lower Quadrant – lines the abdominopelvic cavity; – a parietal peritoneum lines the wall while visceral peritoneum covers the organs. METHODS OF DIVIDING THE ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY UMBILICAL REGION ➜ Centermost region ➜ Surrounding the NAVEL EPIGASTRIC REGION ➜ “Epi” – ABOVE ➜ Superior to the umbilical region HYPOGASTRIC REGION ➜ “PUBIC” region ➜ Inferior to the umbilical region RIGHT and LEFT ILIAC OTHER BODY CAVITIES ➜ Lateral to the hypogastric region ➜ “iliac” – Superior part of the hip bone ORAL AND DIGESTIVE CAVITIES RIGHT and LEFT LUMBAR ➜ Mouth – contains the teeth and tongue ➜ Lateral to the UMBILICAL REGION NASAL CAVITY ➜ “lumbus” – loin ➜ Located within and posterior to the nose 6  ➜ Part of the respiratory system passageways. ORBITAL CAVITIES Patellar → anterior to the knee ➜ Orbital cavities in the skull houses the eyes and Calcaneal → heel of the foot present them in anterior position Occipital → posterior surface of elbow MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES Lumbar → area of back between ribs and hips; THE LOIN ➜ Carved into the skull lie just medial to the Sacral → area between the hips and base of the spine eardrum Gluteal → buttock ➜ Contains tint bones that transmit sound vibration to the gearing receptors in the inner ear B. BODY CAVITY E. ORGAN SYSTEM Body Covering ➜ Integumentary System Support and Movement ➜ Muscular System ➜ Skeletal System Integration and Coordination ➜ Endocrine System ➜ Nervous System Transport ➜ Cardiovascular System ➜ Lymphatic System Absorption and Excretion ➜ Digestive System ➜ Respiratory System ➜ Urinary System Reproduction ➜ Reproductive system Body cavities are spaces within the body that contain, pro- III. ANAPHY LAB EX. 2-8 tect, separate, and support internal organs. A. SURFACE LANDMARKS Cranial cavity is formed by the cranial (skull) bones and contains the brain. 62221Vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column (backbone) and contains the spinal cord. The major body cavities of the trunk are the THORACIC and ABDOMINOPELVIC cavities. THORACIC CAVITY The Chest Cavity ➜ Pericardial cavity → fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart ➜ Pleural cavities → each of which surrounds one lung and contains a small amount of fluid. TERMS ➜ Mediastinum → The central portion of the Orbital → eye area thoracic cavity is an anatomical region. It is Nasal → nose area between the lungs, extending from the Oral → mouth sternum (breastbone) to the vertebral Cervical → neck region column (backbone), Thoracic → Area between the neck and abdomen ➜ Diaphragm → a dome-shaped muscle that Axillary → armpit powers breathing and separates the thoracic Abdominal → anterior body; trunk inferior to ribs cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. Umbilical → navel Pelvic → area overlying the pelvis ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Inguinal → area where thigh meets body trunk; GROIN Extends from the diaphragm to the groin ➜ Abdominal cavity - contains the stomach, spleen, liver, Pubic → genital region gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large Buccal → Cheek area intestine. Brachial → arm Femoral → thighs (posterior and anterior) 7  ➜ Pelvic cavity - contains the urinary bladder, portions of C. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY QUADRANTS & the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive REGIONS system. THORACIC AND ABDOMINOPELVIC SEROSAL MEMBRANE 1. The thoracic cavity is lined with pleura; the parietal pleura lines the cavities while the visceral pleura covers the lungs. a. A thin layer of serous fluid separates the two layers. 2. The heart is surrounded by pericardium. The visceral pericardium covers the heart and the parietal pericardium makes up an outer sac. a. Serous fluid separates the two layers. 3. Peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity; a parietal peritoneum lines the wall while visceral peritoneum Abdominopelvic cavity quadrants covers the organs. ➜ right upper quadrant (RUQ) ➜ left upper quadrant (LUQ) Organs inside the THORACIC and ABDOMINOPELVIC ➜ right lower quadrant (RLQ) cavities are called VISCERA. ➜ left lower quadrant (LLQ) Abdominopelvic regions ➝ right hypochondriac ➝ epigastric ➝ left hypochondriac ➝ right lumbar ➝ umbilical ➝ left lumbar ➝ right inguinal ➝ hypogastric ➝ left inguinal THORACIC AND ABDOMINOPELVIC SEROSAL MEMBRANE 1. Oral and Digestive Cavities - Mouth: contains the teeth and tongue 2. Nasal Cavity: lies above the bone that forms the roof of the mouth and curves down at the back to join the throat (within and posterior to the nose) - Part of the respiratory system passageways - Located within and posterior to the nose 3. Orbital Cavity: houses the eyes & allows its movement 8  4. Middle Ear Cavities: carved into the skull; medial to 4. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM eardrum & contains the tiny bones that: Transport blood which carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, - Identifies sound (transmit sound vibrations to carbon dioxide, wastes, and more. the gearing receptors in the inner ear) The heart is the one in charge in pumping blood - Maintain body balance ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: Blood vessel - delivers blood to the organ and tissues D. MAJOR SYSTEMS AND ORGANS in our body Heart - pumps the blood around the body; located in 1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM the midline in between the two (2) lungs External covering of the body that protects deeper tissues from injury. ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: 5. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Hair - made of column of tightly packed by dead Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessel and returns it to keratinocytes blood Skin - function is to protect the body from the exterior Houses white blood environment ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: Fingernails- function is to reinforce and protect the Lymph nodes - acts as a filter and found along the ends of the fingers and toes lymphatic vessels Lymphatic vessels - the network of capillary; 2. MUSCULAR SYSTEM transport lymphs away from tissues Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture, as well as producing heat. 6. IMMUNE SYSTEM ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: Safeguards the body from germs, bacteria, viruses, fungi, Skeletal muscle - voluntary muscles attached to the and toxins bones and provide the force needed to move bones ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: Cardiac muscle -these muscle lines the heart wall; Thymus - serves as the body’s defense mechanism appears striated (stripted) and it is an involuntary that provides protections against pathogens muscle Bone marrow - produces blood cells like Red Blood Smooth muscle - located in the walls of visceral Cells (RBC), White Blood Cells (WBC), and Platelets organs like liver, pancreas and intestines. Involuntary muscle and appears spindle-shaped. 7. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes 3. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM carbon dioxide. Control body activities; it secrete hormones that regulate ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by Nasal cavity - filter and warm the air and make it moist body cells before it goes into the lungs ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: Pharynx - passageway for food and air Pituitary gland - master of endocrine gland, receives Larynx- contains vocal cords and routes air and food signals from the hypothalamus to the proper channel Thyroid gland - found at the base of the throat, Trachea- windpipe and passage of air into the lungs inferior to the adam's apple Bronchi- carry air from lungs Parathyroid gland - tiny mass on the posterior of the Lungs - bring oxygen to our body thyroid and secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) Adrenal gland - sits on top of the kidneys Thymus gland - it makes special white blood cells that 8. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM develop the immune system. Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the Pancreas - produces pancreatic juice which is an blood for distribution to body cells enzyme that breaks down some sugar, starches and ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: fat Oral cavity - receives food by ingestion Pineal - triggers the body’s sleep/wake cycle Esophagus - a tubes that connects the pharynx to the Ovaries- female gonas located in the pelvic cavity; stomach produce 2 groups of steroid hormones: estrogen and Stomach - storage site of foods progesterone Small intestine - is absorbs nutrients and help further Testes - male gonads suspended outside the pelvic digest the food cavity; produces sperm; produce androgens such as Large intestine - absorbs water and changes the testosterone chyme (bolus + pancreatic juice) into feces 9 9. URINARY SYSTEM ○ An optical instrument that uses a lens or a Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body combination of lenses to produce enlarged It regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the images of small objects, especially of objects blood. too small to be seen by the naked eye to see ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: microscopic objects, either compound or Kidney - filtering blood and produce urine stereo. Ureter - transfer fluids from the kidney to the urinary Magnification bladder ○ Generally refers to the number on the Urinary bladder - temporary storage site for urine objective. Urethra - transports fluid from the urinary bladder to ○ It is, sometimes, also referred to as the the exterior eyepiece. ○ The eyepiece multiplied by the objective achieves total magnification. 10. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Resolution Takes part in the production of offspring. ○ The ability of the lens to show fine details of ➜ MAJOR ORGANS: the object being observed. ➜ Males Compound Microscope Seminal vesicle - move seminal fluids and sperm into ○ A generic term that describes all the urethra and out through the penis configurations and types of binocular, Prostate gland - it produces a fluid that makes up the monocular, trinocular but not stereo semen ; located below the bladder and in front of the microscopes. rectum Penis - use for urinations and sexual function Testis - male gonads suspended outside the pelvic Dissecting Microscope cavity ○ A monocular or stereo microscope with a Scrotum - protects the testicles second viewing port. ➜ Females ○ The vertical port can be used with an Mammary gland - secretes milk; modified as sweat eyepiece for an instructor to view the glands and usually present in both sexes but it only specimen, or used with an adapter and function in women camera. Uterine tube- it transports the sperm towards the egg ○ Also referred to as a teaching microscope for Ovary - female gonads located in the pelvic cavity two or more users. Uterus -fertilized the egg until it becomes a fetus Objective Lenses Vagina - connects the uterus from the outside ○ The lens in a microscope (screwed into the nosepiece) closest to the specimen gathers light from the object being observed and focuses light rays to produce a real image. Nosepiece E. PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE ○ Also called the turret, the part of the microscope that holds the objective lens. Better quality has ball bearings. Mechanical Stage ○ A mechanical device part of or connected to the stage that allows one to move the specimen slide in the X or Y direction in a precise distance by turning a knob. Condenser ○ A lens mounted in the stage/platform whose purpose is to focus or condense the light onto the specimen. ○ These lenses are not used on low-power (stereo) microscopes. Course Focus ○ The larger rough focus knob on the microscope closest to the frame or the body of the microscope. ○ Moves the stage towards or away from the TERMINOLOGY LIST FOR MICROSCOPE: specimen while the objectives are in fixed Microscope positions. Pointer 10  ○ A piece of high tensile wire that sits in the IV. REFERENCES eyepiece and enables a viewer to point at a Barranco, B.S. (2021). Anatomical Position. Powerpoint specific area of a specimen. Presentation. FEU-NRMF. Marieb, E.N., Keller,S.K. (2018). Essentials of Human Anatomy Iris Diaphragm & Physiology. Pearson Education South Asia PTE.LTD. ○ Found on high power microscopes under the stage. V. TRANS AUTHORSHIP ○ A five hole-disc with each hole having a Sheena Caballero, BSN 1-C different diameter. Yshi Ma. Bettina D. Cabia, BSN 1-C ○ Used to vary the light that passes through Danica Mae P. Mendoza, BSN 1-C the stage opening and helps to adjust both the contrast and resolution of a specimen. A. ISOTONIC, HYPOTONIC, & HYPERTONIC ISOTONIC A solution that has the same salt concentration as cells and blood. It is commonly used as intravenously infused fluids in hospitalized patients. Solute concentration outside the cell is equal to the solute concentration inside the cell (no change / no net water movement) HYPOTONIC Solute Concentration is less than the inside of the cell; the cell gains water, and if it continues to gain water will eventually burst. HYPERTONIC Pertain to a property of a solution with a comparatively greater solute concentration than that in another solution. The other solution is being compared with a substance with greater osmotic pressure. 11  ANAPHY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PROF. BERNARD S. BARRANCO ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ PRELIMS OUTLINE THREE MAIN REGIONS OF THE CELL I. Human Cells A. Anatomy of a Generalized Cell NUCLEUS: (nucle – kenel) B. Region of Nucleus Headquarters / Control Center C. Plasma Membrane DNA - blueprint that contains all instruction for the whole D. Three Major Elements of Cytoplasm body. a. Cytoplasmic Organelles ➜ Needed for cell reproduction. b. Cytoplasmic Extensions No nucleus / ejected nucleus – destruction of cell E. Cell Diversity F. Cell Physiology G. Cellular Compartment H. Movement Of Cell Through Membranes II. Body Tissues A. Epithelium B. Connective Tissue C. Nervous Tissue D. Muscle III. Types of Epithelial Membrane IV. Histology Of Cells and Body Tissues V. References PLASMA MEMBRANE VI. Trans Authorship “Cell membrane” Fragile transparent barrier that contains cell content and separates them from the environment. I. HUMAN CELLS Regulates movement of substance in and out of the cell, participates in signal transduction and helps adhere cells to Cell Theory other cells. ➜ A cell is the BASIC structural and functional unit of a living organism. ▪ Everything starts and ends with the cell. ➜ The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cell. ▪ Cells act as one to achieve the organismal level of functioning. ➜ Cell are dictated by the relative number of their specific subcellular structures (Principle of complementarity) ➜ Continuity of life has a cellular basis ▪ Continuity of life will always be reliant on the existing and viability of one cell. CYTOPLASM ▪ We know that the cell has its capacity to reproduce, it Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma has the capacity to differentiate and divide itself or membrane even grow or likewise repair itself however in a long “Factory area” – site of most cellular activities process if it's affected by illnesses or diseases, the cell will have an end or will be able to fail on the specific and particular. A. ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL 1. NUCLEUS 2. PLASMA MEMBRANE 3. CYTOPLASM B. REGION OF NUCLEUS NUCLEAR ENVELOPE “Nuclear Membrane” Double membrane of the nucleus Fluid filled “moat” – between two membranes Nuclear pores – substance passes freely when two membrane fuse 1  Nucleoplasm – Jelly-like fluid in which other nuclear elements are suspended NUCLEOLUS Olive-like structure forms the basic FABRIC of the Largest structure with the nucleus membrane. Contains clyster of PROTEIN and RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) 1. Polar HEAD of phospholipid molecules – Lollipop Involved with RIBOSOME formation and ribosomal RNA shaped synthesis o Hydrophilic – “Water Loving” – both extracellular and intracellular 2. Nonpolar TAILS of phospholipid molecules o Hydrophobic – “Water Hating” – Found at center of membrane CHROMATIN Forms a loose network of bumpy threads when a cell is not dividing. Protein enzymes – hormone receptors Scattered throughout the nucleus ➜ Branch together to bind to a substance. During cell division, it threads coil and condense to form ➜ Passage of molecule ions. dense, rod like bodies called CHROMOSOMES ➜ Carrier to bind with another substance (ex. Sugar Protein - “Glycoproteins”) ➜ Glycoprotein – special receptors to certain bacteria, viruses and toxins MEMBRANE JUNCTION Structure that maintains the adhesion of the plasma membrane and the intracellular space. Every membrane junction can be specifically seen on any specific organ. C. PLASMA MEMBRANE Composed of three membrane junction Selective permeable membrane TIGHT JUNCTION ➜ Allows nutrients (cell protein) to enter the cell and keep Impermeable junction that binds cell together into a leak unnecessary substance out (waste product) proof sheet (ZIPPER) to prevent substance from passing the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE between cells 2 PROCESSES: Example: Small intestine: prevent digestive enzymes from 1. Active process – Cell provides the metabolic energy seeping into the bloodstream. (ATP) ➜ It's primarily seen on the organs of absorption. 2. Passive process – substance (glucose, oxygen and carbon dioxide) transport across the membrane without any energy input from the cell Structure of the PLASMA MEMBRANE consist two lipid (FAT) layer arranged “tail to tail” in which protein molecule FLOAT Lipid portion (phospholipids) and substantial amount CHOLESTEROL strengthens the membrane and makes the membrane less water soluble. Molecules that are soluble to lipid (gases, steroid hormones) can pass the lipid bilayer 2  2. Glycogen granules (liver and muscle cell) GAP JUNCTION 3. Melanin - pigment (skin and hair cells) Function: allows communication between GAPS 4. Secretory products – (Mucus) CONNEXONS – Hollow cylinder composed of protein than span the entire width of the abutting membrane Example: Heart, embryonic cells A. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES Workshop of CELLULAR Factory ADHESION JUNCTION Means “Little ORGANS” – specialized cellular compartment DESMOSOME Performs its own job to maintain LIFE of cell Anchoring junction (“button like”) scattered along the side Membranes – allows organelles to maintain internal of the cell connected by fine protein filament environment Prevent cell subjected to MECHANICAL STRESS MITOCHONDRIA Lozenge-like / sausage shaped organelles In living cell- -squirm, lengthen and change shape Outer membrane - featureless / Inner membrane – shelf like protrusion called CRISTAE Enzyme dissolve in the fluid - foods broken down – energy released ( forms ATP molecules) ➜ “Powerhouse” ➜ Source of energy ORGANS: LIVER, MUSCLE CELLS D. THREE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF CYTOPLASM CYTOSOL Semi transparent membrane that suspends the other element. Absorption of Water, Nutrients, and Solutes RIBOSOMES Tiny , Bilobed, dark bodies made of PROTEINS and one variety of RNA (RIBOSOMAL RNA) Float FREE in the cytoplasm Manufacture PROTEIN that function in the cytoplasm ORGANELLES Metabolic machinery of the cell SYNTHESIZE and PACKAGE proteins ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM System of fluid-filled CISTER (tubule or canals) that coils and twists through the cytoplasm. Accounts about HALF of the cell membrane. Serves as a MINICIRCULATORY system to provide channels for carrying substances. Rough ER- studded with RIBOSOMES (PROTEIN migrate into the tubules thru the ER) INCLUSION (Example: PANCREAS CELLS – produce digestive Chemical substances that may or may not be present. enzymes to be delivered into the small intestines). Function: Store nutrients and cell products: Smooth ER – Communicates with the rough 1. Lipid droplets 3  Function : Lipid Metabolism (Cholesterol and Fat synthesis CELL’s BONES , MUSCLE framework and machinery for and breakdown, detoxification of drugs and pesticide) intracellular transport. Example LIVER , Testes (steroid based hormone) Microtubules- Overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles Intermediate filaments- provides internal wires to resist pulling force on the cell Microfilaments – acts on cell motility and produces changes in shape GOLGI APPARATUS Stack of flattened membranous sac (swarm of tiny vesicles) Close to the NUCLEUS Principal “TRAFFIC DIRECTOR” – for cellular protein FUNCTION – MODIFY and PACKAGE protein (from Endoplasmic reticulum via transport vesicles) CENTRIOLES Lies close to the NUCLEUS Rod shaped bodies that like at right angles to each other. FUNCTION: Role in generating microtubules and cell division LYSOSOMES BREAKDOWN bodies / Cells DEMOLITION site Membranous ”bags” – contain powerful digestive enzyme PHAGOCYTES - -dispose bacteria and cell debris. Digest worn-out or non usable cell structure and foreign substances Abundant in WBC (white blood cell) B. CYTOPLASMIC EXTENSIONS CILIA Whiplike cellular extension that moves the substance along the cell surface. Centrioles multiply and line up beneath the plasma membrane. Microtubules then begin to SPROUT from the centrioles forming the projection. ➜ HUMAN BODY: PEROXISOMES Respiratory system - moves mucus up and away from Membranous sac containing powerful OXIDASE enzyme the lungs. OXIDASE – enzyme that use molecular oxygen to ▪ Small cilia allow the entrapment of those DETOXIFY a number of HARMFUL and POISONOUS microorganisms or those unwanted foreign and prone substances it away from the lungs. FREE RADICAL – by product of cellular metabolism, highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can SCRAMBLE the structure of proteins and nucleic acid “DISARM” dangerous free radicals Organ: LIVER, KIDNEY cell FLAGELLA Projection formed by the centrioles are subsequently longer ➜ HUMAN BODY: SPERM cell – single propulsive flagellum (tail) CYTOSKELETON ➜ The propulsive movement of the sperm cell is more of a Network of protein structure extend throughout the spiral movement. cytoplasm (microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilament) 4  CELLS THAT COVERS AND LINES BODY ORGANS EPITHELIAL CELL Hexagonal shape (Honeycomb of a beehive) The shape allows epithelial cells to pack together in sheets. MICROVILLI Tiny, fingerlike extension of the plasma membrane that projects from the exposed cell surface. ➜ HUMAN BODY: CELLS THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS Intestinal, Kidney Tubules ▪ Mostly found in organs that are responsible for SKELETAL MUSCLE AND SMOOTH MUSCLE absorption and excretion. Elongated and filled with abundant contractile filaments It can SHORTEN forcefully and MOVE the bones or change the size of internals organs E. CELL DIVERSITY Illustrates how the shape of cell and relative number of the various organelles relates to the SPECIALIZED cell function CELLS THAT CONNECT BODY PARTS FIBROBLAST CELLS THAT STORES NUTRIENTS Elongated shape of this cell lies along the cable-like fiber. Abundant rough Endoplasmic reticulum and large Golgi FAT CELLS apparatus to make and secrete the protein building block. Huge spherical shape of a fat cell produced by large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm ➜ Good source especially if the other sources are depleted. ➜ It is the one that also stores nutrients. ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CELLS) Oxygen carrier in the bloodstream CONCAVE disc shape - provides extra surface area for the uptake of oxygen; moves the cell through the bloodstream ➜ The shape allows them to maneuver in every size of the lumen of a blood vessel. ➜ circulation will be impeded if an irregularly shape of erythrocytes clump over an area of a certain blood vessel ➜ Life span of RBC is 120 days and their final resting place is the spleen then new sets of RBC will be formed. CELLS THAT FIGHT DISEASE MACROPHAGE Phagocytic cell Pseudopods (false feet) to crawl through tissues to reach infection sites Have Lysosomes within the cell to DIGEST the infectious organism. 5 CELLS THAT GATHER INFORMATION AND CONTROLS F. CELL PHYSIOLOGY BODY FUNCTION NERVE CELLS MEMBRANE TRANSPORT Neuron PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Cells have a long process (extension) for receiving CELL REPRODUCTION messages and transmitting them to other structures of the body. The process are covered with an extensive plasma membrane and a plentiful of Rough ER synthesizes membrane component SOLUTION – HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE COMPONENTS SOLVENT – DISSOLVING MEDIUM (WATER) G. CELLULAR COMPARTMENT INTRACELLULAR ➜ Inside the cell ➜ Composed Of: ▪ Oxygen and Carbon dioxide ▪ Nutrients ▪ Salts ▪ Water EXTRACELLULAR (Interstitial) CELLS OF REPRODUCTION ➜ Outside the cell ➜ Fluid that “bathes” the exterior of the cell OOCYTES (FEMALE) ➜ Composed of: The largest cell in the body ▪ Nutrients (amino acids, sugar, fatty acids and vitamins) Contains several copies of all ORGANELLES ▪ Hormones Distribution to the daughter cell that arises when the ▪ Neurotransmitter fertilized egg divides into become an embryo. ▪ Salts ▪ Waste product SPERM (MALE) The cell is long and built for swimming to the EGG cell for fertilization FLAGELLUM acts as a MOBILE whip to propel the sperm 6  If a solution is isotonic ➜ Concentration of solute outside is = inside cell ➜ No net movement of water ➜ In equilibrium H. MOVEMENT OF CELL THROUGH MEMBRANES FACILITATED DIFFUSION DIFFUSION Diffusion of materials (glucose) across a cell membrane Process by which molecules of a substance move from assisted by carrier molecules (protein membrane) areas of higher concentration of that substance to areas of lower concentration (kinetic energy/energy in motion) Moves in high speed / molecules collide Affected by the SIZE and TEMPERATURE FILTRATION Process by which water and solutes are FORCED through a ➜ Hydrophobic Core membrane (capillary wall) by fluid or hydrostatic pressure. ▪ Physical barrier of diffusion ○ This happens usually in the capillary wall which is a semi ▪ Affected by: permeable membrane. 1. Molecules are small enough to pass through ○ The greater the pressure, the greater the tendency to go the membrane pores out. 2. Molecules are lipid soluble 3. Molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier. OSMOSIS Diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration Allows passing of water through “aquaporins” (water pores) Note: Blood cells and protein molecules don’t pass through the membrane pores ➜ Hypertonic solution ▪ area of more solute 2 PROCESSES: ➜ Hypotonic solution 1. Active process – Cell provides the metabolic energy ▪ area of less solute (ATP) 2. Passive process – substance (glucose, oxygen and If semipermeable membrane separates hypotonic solution carbon dioxide) transport across the membrane from hypertonic solution, water will move across membrane without any energy input from the cell from hypotonic solution (less solute, more solvent) Hypertonic solution (more solute, less solvent) ACTIVE TRANSPORT Energy-requiring process (uses ATP) that moves material If a solution is hypertonic across a cell membrane against a concentration difference ➜ concentration of solutes is > it is inside cell Energized protein carrier (solute pumps) transports AMINO ➜ cell will lose water ACID, SUGAR and most IONS ➜ cell will shrink VESICULAR TRANSPORT If a solution is hypotonic Cannot get through the plasma membrane by active and ➜ concentration of solutes outside is < it is inside cell passive transport Types: ➜ cell will gain water ➜ cell will swell 7  1. Exocytosis can protect − Large molecules removed from the cell Cells often have desmosomes Function in protection, secretion, absorption, and excretion Classified according to cell shape and number of cell layers CLASSIFICATION Cell Arrangement (Layer) ○ Simple Epithelium - one layer ○ Stratified Epithelium - composed of epithelium layers Cell Shape ○ Squamous Cells - flattened ○ Cuboidal Cells - cube shape ○ Columnar Cells - columns 2. Endocytosis − taking material into the cell by means of infolding, pockets or vesicles of the cell membrane − Once vesicle is formed ,it detached from plasma membrane into the cytoplasm − Fuses with LYSOSOMES ▪ phagocytosis – take in large particles (“ cell eating”) ▪ pinocytosis – take in liquid (“drinking”) – extracellular II. BODY TISSUES The composition of the human tissue is almost the same as the composition of the human cell. In terms of its sets of groups (groups of cells), they now emerge as body tissue. The tissues of the human body can be subdivided into four namely the epithelium, connective tissues, nervous tissues, and muscle. A. EPITHELIUM EPITHELIAL TISSUE ➜ “epithe” – laid on / covering ➜ “Lining” covering and Glandular tissue of the body SIMPLE EPITHELIUM FOUR IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS Most concerns with absorption, secretion, and filtration Protection - (SKIN) bacteria and chemical damage; (CILIA) Very Thin sweep dust and other debris Absorption - (DIGESTIVE) Nutrients into the body SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM Filtration - (KIDNEYS) Absorption and filtration A single layer of these squamous cells resting on the Secretion - (GLANDS) ex, Perspiration, oil, basement of the membrane digestive enzymes, mucus. Fits together so closely ○ Air sac of lungs – oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange ○ GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Walls capillaries – nutrients and gases pass between the Cover organs and the body tissue cells. Line body cavities - can be one layer or two ○ Lymphatic vessels layers Line hollow organs - can be columnar Have a free surface Have a basement membrane Avascular - no blood source Cells readily divide Cells tightly packed - can make a composition that 8 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM A layer of cuboidal cells resting on the basement membrane 2-3 layers with surface layer CUBOIDAL in shape. ○ Common in glands and ducts (Salivary gland and ○ Mammary gland pancreas) ○ Sweat gland ○ Wall of the kidney tubules ○ Salivary gland ○ The surface of the ovaries ○ Pancreas SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit TOP LAYER – ELONGATED CELLS together. DEEPER LAYER – CUBED SHAPED GOBLET CELLS – produce lubricating mucus ○ Male urethra ○ Digestive tract – ENTIRE LENGTH (stomach to ○ Part of pharynx anus) TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM Highly MODIFIED, STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS epithelium PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM BASAL LAYER – CUBOIDAL or COLUMNAR Rest on the basement membrane ○ Urinary bladder “pseudo” – false impression ○ Ureters Some cells are SHORTER than the other Pseudostratified ciliated columnar - CILIA ○ Respiratory tract – mucus traps dust and debris / Cilia propels mucus upward and away from the lungs. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA Consists of two or more layers. GRANDULAR EPITHELIUM Durable than simple epithelia Composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM Gland – consist of one or more cells that make or secrete a particular PRODUCT. Most common Product – SECRETION (protein molecule in an aqueous Several layers of cell fluid) FREE EDGE – Squamous cells ○ Lose their connection to the surface (duct) - BASEMENT – Cuboidal or columnar DUCTLESS GLANDS ○ Esophagus ○ Secretions (HORMONES) diffuse directly into the ○ Mouth blood vessel that weaves through the gland. ○ Skin - the outer portion ○ Organs: ➜ Thyroid gland ➜ Adrenals ➜ Pituitary gland 9  Exocrine glands have ducts Extracellular matrix ○ Retain duct - secretion empty through the ➜ Made up of different types of cells ducts ➜ Sweat gland ➜ Oil gland ➜ Liver ➜ Pancreas MAIN ELEMENT Ground substance ➜ Water ➜ Proteins – cell adhesion proteins allow to connect to the matrix ➜ Polysaccharide molecules – traps water Fibers ➜ Collagen (White) fiber – high tensile strength ➜ Elastic Yellow fiber – stretch and recoil ➜ Reticular fiber - forms the internal skeleton FUNCTION To bear weight To withstand stretching and other abuses (Abrasion) CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS Collagenous fibers ○ Thick ○ Composed of collagen ○ Great tensile strength ○ Abundant in dense CT ○ Hold structures together TYPES OF GLANDULAR SECRETIONS ○ Ex. Tendons, ligaments Merocrine glands Reticular fibers ○ Fluid product ○ Salivary glands ○ Very thin collagenous fibers ○ Pancreas ○ Highly branched ○ Sweat glands ○ Form supportive networks Apocrine glands Elastic fibers ○ Cellular product ○ Bundles of microfibrils ○ Portions of cells embedded in elastin ○ Mammary glands ○ Fibers branch ○ Ceruminous glands Holocrine glands ○ Elastic ○ secretory products ○ Ex. Vocal cords, Air passages ○ whole cells ○ sebaceous glands B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE FUNCTIONS Connects body part Bind structures Most abundant and widely distributed. Provide support and protection PROTECTING, SUPPORTING, and BINDING TOGETHER Serve as frameworks Fill spaces COMMON CHARACTERISTICS Blood Supply Store fat ➜ Well vascularized Produce blood cells ➜ Poor Blood supply (Tendons and Ligaments) Protect against infections ➜ Avascular – (Cartilages) Help repair tissue damage 10  ▪ Universal packing tissue and connective tissue “glue” – MAJOR CELL TYPES: holds organ together in proper position Fibroblasts lamina propia- fluid matrix is filled with all types of fiber. ➜ Fixed cell Areolar connective tissues – provide reservoir of water ➜ Most common cell and salts, obtain nutrients and release of waste into the ➜ Large, star-shaped tissue fluids ➜ Produce fibers Adipose tissue ➜ Adipocytes Mast cells ➜ Cushions ➜ Fixed cell ➜ Insulates ➜ Release heparin ➜ Store fats ➜ Release histamine ➜ beneath skin / behind eyeballs ➜ around kidneys and heart 2. Dense connective tissue Macrophages → manufacture the building block of the fibers ➜ Wandering cell →Packed collagenous fibers →Elastic fibers ➜ Phagocytic →Few fibroblasts ➜ Important in injury or infection →Bind body parts together →Tendons – skeletal muscle to bone →Ligaments – connect bone to bone →Dermis → Poor blood supply TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES Connective tissue ○ Loose connective tissue 3. Elastic connective tissue ○ Dense connective tissue →abundant in elastic fibers ○ Elastic connective tissue →some collagenous fibers ○ Areolar tissue →fibroblasts ○ Adipose tissue →attachments between bones Specialized connective tissue →walls of large arteries, airways, heart ○ Cartilage ○ Bone ○ Blood 1. Loose connective tissue ➜ Widely distributed ➜ “Soft, Pliable, cobwebby” tissue – cushion sand protects ➜ Function 4. Bone (Osseous Tissue) 11  →Solid matrix 6. Blood →Supports →Fluid matrix called plasma →Protects →Red blood cells →Forms blood cells →White blood cells →Attachment for muscles →Platelets →Skeleton →Transports →Osteocytes in lacunae →Defends →Involved in clotting →Throughout the body in blood vessels →Heart 5. Cartilage →Rigid matrix C. NERVOUS TISSUE →Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) in lacunae Found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves →Poor blood supply Basic cells are neurons ○ THREE TYPES: NEUROGLIA – insulates, support and protect the neuron Hyaline Neuroglial cells support and bind nervous tissue ○ Abundant components ○ Rubbery matrix, glassy Blue white Sensory reception appearance Conduction of nerve impulses ○ Supporting structure of Larynx, voice box ➜ 2 major functional characteristics ○ Attaches rib to breastbone ▪ IRRITABILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY ○ Cover end of the bone (joints) D. MUSCLE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: Muscle cells called muscle fibers Contractile ➜ Three types: ▪ Skeletal ▪ Smooth ▪ Cardiac Skeletal muscle Elastic ➜ Attached to the skeleton (bones) ○ Structures with elasticity ➜ STRIATED ○ External ear ➜ VOLUNTARY (continuously) ➜ Contraction –pull on bones or skin (facial expression) ▪ Cell: − ELONGATED (long axis for contraction) − CYLINDRICAL − MULTINUCLEATE − Striation (Stripes) Fibrocartilage ○ Form cushion-like disk Between vertebrae Smooth muscle (Visceral muscle) ➜ Walls of organs (stomach, uterus and blood vessel) ➜ Smooth muscle contract – cavity of an organ becomes smaller. ➜ Smooth muscle relaxes – DILATES ➜ SINGLE cell (pointed at each end) ➜ Involuntary 12  ➜ NO STRIATION ➜ CONTRACT SLOWER : WHITE BLOOD CELL ( LEUKOCYTES) Cardiac muscle Description: ➜ Heart wall ❖ Spherical cell with a nucleus ➜ Involuntary ❖ White in color because it lacks hemoglobin ➜ STRIATED ➜ Cardiac Cell - UNINUCLEATED Function: ➜ Intercalated discs – branching cell fit together at the ➔ Five types of white blood cells, each with specific junction functions; Protection for foreign materials/immunity ➜ INVOLUNTARY – cannot consciously control heart Visual Representation : activity III. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES Serous ➜ Line body cavities that do not open to the outside GRANULOCYTES ➜ Reduce friction ➜ Inner lining of thorax and abdomen NEUTROPHIL ➜ Cover organs of thorax and abdomen Description: ➜ Secrete serous fluid ❖ Nucleus with 2-4 loves connected by thin filaments Mucous ❖ Cytoplasmic granules stain a light pink or reddish ➜ Line tubes and organs that open to outside world purple ➜ Lining of mouth, nose, throat ❖ 10-12 µm in diameter ➜ Secrete mucus Cutaneous Function: ➜ Covers body ➔ Phagocytizes microorganisms and other ➜ Skin substances Synovial ➜ Composed entirely of connective tissue Visual Representation : ➜ Lines joints IV. HISTOLOGY OF CELLS AND BODY TISSUES CELLS RED BLOOD CELL (ERYTHROCYTE) Description: ❖ Biconcave disk; NO NUCLEUS ❖ contains hemoglobin = making the cell red