Week 11 Food Additives PDF

FOOD ADDITIVES FAT 3103 Definition by FDA A food additive is any substance added to food. Legally, the term refers to "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result -- directly or indirectly -- in its becoming a component or otherwise affec...

FOOD ADDITIVES FAT 3103 Definition by FDA A food additive is any substance added to food. Legally, the term refers to "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result -- directly or indirectly -- in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food." This definition includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food. The purpose of the legal definition, however, is to impose a premarket approval requirement. Therefore, this definition excludes ingredients whose use is generally recognized as safe (where government approval is not needed), those ingredients approved for use by FDA or the U.S. Department of Agriculture prior to the food additives provisions of law, and color additives and pesticides where other legal premarket approval requirements apply.  Food additive means any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself and not normally used as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result (directly or indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the characteristics of such foods. The term does not include contaminants or substances added to food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities. (Codex Alimentarius Procedural Manual) Introduction  Must provide some useful and acceptable function or attribute to justify its usage  Improve keeping quality (preservatives)  Enhance nutritional value (fortification/ enhancement)  Functional property provision and improvement  Processing facilitation  Enhance consumer acceptance FOOD ADDITIVES Permission control and regulated by:  Codex Alimentarius  Codex General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA)  Government agency policies  Food Act Regulation 1985  Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  ACID TRACERS BASES GASES & BUFFER PROPELLANT SYSTEM/ SALT ANTICAKING CHELATING AGENT AGENT BLEACHING FOOD ANTIOXIDANTS AGENT ADDITIVES CLARIFIYING ANTIMICROBIALS AGENT MASTICATORY SWEETENER SUBSTANCE FAT REPLACER TEXTURIZER STABILIZER & THICKENER 9 Acids  Help to maintain a constant acid level in food. This is important for taste, as well as to influence how other substances in the food function.  For example, an acidified food can retard the growth of some microorganisms. Bakery and tortillas: as a leavening acid  Acidic microbial inhibitors (sorbic acid, in the leavening agent and also acts as a benzoic acid) flavoring agent for savory baked goods.  In beverage, fumaric acid functions as a PH Confectionaries and desserts: non- control agent and enhancing flavor. hygroscopic agent. Chewing gum: slow dissolution and hydrophobicity property, prolongs the sourness in the mouth so that it enhances the flavor of chewing gum. Uses of fumaric acid The following foods may contain with E297 and its maximum level (14): Food Category Maximum Level Fruit-flavoured desserts 4000 Sugar confectionery 1000 Chewing gum 2000 Decorations, coatings and fillings 1000 Fillings and toppings for fine bakery 2500 ware Instant products for preparation of 1000 flavoured tea and herbal infusions Gel-like desserts, fruit-flavoured 1000 desserts, dry powdered dessert mixes Acidulants Gluconic acid (E574) and Succinic Acid (E363) in Food Gluconates in Food L-Tartaric Acid (E334) in Wine Citric Acid (E330) In Food Bases  Enhancement of color and flavor  Ripe olives are treated with solutions of sodium hydroxide (0.25– 2.0%) to aid in the removal of the bitter principal and to develop a darker color.  Solubilization of proteins  Disodium phosphate, trisodium phosphate and trisodium citrate  To increase pH (from 5.7 to 6.3) and to effect protein (casein) dispersion  Salt-protein interaction improves the emulsifying and water- binding capabilities of the cheese proteins  Chemical peeling  Fruits and vegetables exposure at hot solutions 60–82°C of 3% sodium hydroxide followed by mild abrasion  Chemical leavening systems  Compounds that react to release gas in a dough or batter under appropriate conditions of moisture and temperature  Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) Buffer Systems and Salts  Substances that can participate in pH control and buffering systems  Lactic acid and phosphate salts along with proteins are important for pH control in animal tissue  Polycarboxylic acids, phosphate salts and proteins are important in plant tissues  Milk acts as a complex buffer because of carbon dioxide, proteins, phosphate, citrate and several other minor constituents.  Sodium salts of gluconic, acetic, citric and phosphoric acids are commonly used for pH control and tartness modification since they yield smoother sour flavors.  When low sodium products are required, potassium buffer salts may be substituted for sodium salts Chelating agents  A metal with a higher stability constant reacts with the chelating agent with a lower stability value and removes the metal with a lower constant from the complex. Calcium which is readily available in the body binds to large quantities if disodium EDTA is administeredEDTA in. Chelating agents tie up all the coordination positions of a metal ion. It should be noted that metal chelating agents usually contain more than one functional group, in order to provide a chemical “claw” to chelate the toxic metal. Characteristics of a Chelating Agent Ideally the chelating agent should possess the following characteristics: Strong affinity for the toxic metal to be chelated Ability to chelate with natural chelating groups found in biological system Low toxicity Ability to penetrate cell membrane to reach site of toxic metal deposit Minimal metabolism Rapid elimination of metal High water solubility Chelating Agents and Their Properties 1. Calcium disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (CaNa2EDTA) -useful as a chelator for a variety of metal intoxications 2. EDTA is a chelating agent permitted for use in the food industry as a chemical preservative. 3. Calcium disodium EDTA and disodium EDTA have been approved for use as food additives by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Bleaching agents Materials used both for bleaching and improving - chlorine gas, (Cl 2); chlorindioxide, (CIO2); nitrosyl chloride, (NOCI); and nitrogen di and tetraoxides, (NO2 and N2O4). Chemical agents used as flour improvers are oxidizing agents, which may participate in bleaching agent. The agent that is used only for flour bleaching is benzoyl peroxide (C6H5CO)2O2).  Antioxidants  Food antioxidants are scavengers of free radicals present in human body. These free radicals can damage DNA, cell membrane, trigger disease including arthritis, deterioration of the eye lens and accelerate ageing process. Foods which have high levels of antioxidant are being promoted by physicians, dietitians, and nutritional industries which will foster product utilization, thus propelling market growth.  Antioxidants- compounds that can interrupt the free-radical chain reaction involved in lipid oxidation and those that scavenge singlet oxygen. E.g. tocopherols, coniferyl alcohol, guaiaconic and guaiacic acid  Oxidation-reduction lead to degradation of vitamins, pigments and lipids with loss of nutritional value and development of off flavors. Published Date: Mar 2019 | Report ID: GMI3195 | Authors: Kunal Ahuja, Sonal Singh Food Antioxidant Market Size By Product (Natural [Vitamin E, Vitamin C, Polyphenols], Synthetic [Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA), Tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT), Propyl Gallate]), By Application (Fats & Oils, Processed Foods, Bakery & Confectionary, Meat Products, Beverages), Regional Outlook, Price Trend, Application Development, Competitive Landscape & Forecast, 2019 – 2025 The extensive use of preservative will fortify market growth by 2025. Published Date: Mar 2019 | Report ID: GMI3195 | Authors: Kunal Ahuja, Sonal Singh The increasing consumption of processed food and growing demand for products with longer shelf life is expanding food antioxidants market. The substances preserve food from militate against oxidative deterioration on processing and storage. The product owing to its high stability and low volatility help to maintain the level of nutrients, texture, colour, taste, aroma, and functionality in food & beverages.  Food Antioxidants Market, By Product  Food antioxidants market size from  Food antioxidants market size vitamin C may observe gains up to from propyl gallate may 5.5% in the estimated timeline. witness substantial gains up to 3.5% by 2025. Vitamin C - white crystalline powder – used to stabilize beverages,  It is widely used in foods vegetables and fruits. where other liposoluble synthetic antioxidants  This antioxidant is used to including BHA, BHT, and TBHQ demolished oxygen, decrease free are not appropriate. radicals and regeneration of key  The product is infused in antioxidants. different vegetable oils and is  It is vulnerable to elements including used in creation of artificial aromas which will foster heat and oxygen and is added market growth. exogenously to food, hence stimulating product demand. Food Antioxidants Market, By Region  Asia Pacific  Europe India, South Korea, China and UK, France and Germany food Japan food antioxidants market antioxidants market size may size is predicted to grow up to exceed USD 800 million by 5% by 2025. 2025. The market is driven by steady The product helps to enhance the innovation in food and shelf life of bakery products. beverages for high-performance natural ingredients. Rising demand for bakery Growing inclination towards products owing to their functional food and beverages in appealing taste and easy to China, India, and Japan will digest nature is likely to drive further stimulate market growth. regional market growth.  Brazil  food antioxidants market size may observe significant gains in the forecasted timeline due to rising meat and meat product demand.  The product is used by meat suppliers to extent the shelf life of meat products.  Growing awareness about nutritious diet and need to impart ethnic taste will play a vital role in propelling the industry size.  Food Antioxidants Market, By Application  Food antioxidants market size from meat  Food antioxidants market size products application is predicted to from beverages is estimated to surpass USD 1.05 billion in the estimated gain up to 4.5% by 2025. time span.  The product helps to purify  Meat is prone to degeneration and human body and protects cells microbial development during from free radicals that can lead slaughtering and post-slaughter handling. to blood clot formation, cancer, and atherosclerosis.  Meat suppliers use several food additives to extend the shelf life of meat and meat  Utilization of product in red wine products. increases level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and  Growing prevalence of natural protect against cholesterol build- antioxidants including rosemary extract, up. These factors will boost tea catechin, tannins for clean label product demand. solutions owing to potential health hazards of synthetic antioxidants will further fortify market profitability. Antimicrobial Agent Antimicrobial uses that may result in residues in or on food can be divided among two categories: uses where the intended antimicrobial effects are on edible food, or in water that comes into contact with such food, and uses of food- contact substances. At this time there are uses in both categories that fall within FDA's authority to regulate as food additives..  Acetic acid  Sulfites and Sulfur Dioxide  Benzoic acid  Nitrite and Nitrate Salts  p-Hydroxybenzoate alkyl  Sorbic acid esters  Natamycin  Epoxides  Glyceryl esters  Antibiotics  Propionic acid  Diethyl pyrocarbonate Sodium Benzoate  Best known as a preservative  odorless, crystalline powder made by combining benzoic acid and sodium hydroxide.  It also goes by the names such as Antimol, Benzoate of soda, Sodium benzoic acid or Benzoate sodium.  Sodium benzoate is the very first preservative the FDA allowed in foods and is still being widely used today.  There are many other uses for Sodium Benzoate including, as a food additive, as a preservative in over-the-counter and prescription medications, a preservative in cosmetics, personal care items, hair products, baby wipes, toothpaste, mouthwash and many other applications. Our Sodium Benzoate is always 100% food grade safe!  Preservative in foods, Food additive, Preservative in sodas and soft drinks, E number E211, Used to prevent fermentation in wines, Increases flavor in foods such as pickles, jams, fruit juices, and sauces, Preservative in cosmetics Sweeteners  Alternative sweeteners are among the most thoroughly studied and scrupulously regulated ingredients in our food supply.  They are also the most visible.  Consumers are very familiar with sweeteners—they understand what sweeteners do and know them individually by their trade names, if not generically.  In a 2004 nationally projectable consumer survey conducted by the Calorie Control Council, 84% of respondents reported using low- calorie, reduced-sugar, or sugar-free foods and beverages. And 85% of these users said they were interested in being offered additional light products. Artificial sweeteners Sugar substitutes also called artificial sweeteners, take the place of sucrose (table sugar) and other sugars to sweeten foods and beverages. Studies show conflicting evidence of potential harm caused by sugar substitutes. Most have little or no calories, so contribute nothing in terms of nutritional value to our foods. Many are made from ingredients we would never consider eating under normal circumstances. Recent studies indicate that despite their lack of calories, most sugar substitutes seem to contribute to weight gain rather than prevent it. Sugar substitutes do not seem to contribute to tooth decay as sugars do. Intensely Sweet Nonnutritive and Low- Calorie Sweeteners  Cyclamate  Saccharin  Aspartame  Acesulfame K  Sucralose  Alitame Polyols and Reduced-Calorie Sweeteners  Polyols are important sweeteners for the production of reduced-calorie and sugar-free foods and beverages. They provide the bulk of sugar with fewer calories than the 4 kcal/g contributed by sugar. FDA allows the use of the following caloric values for the polyols: 0.2 kcal/g for erythritol, 1.6 for mannitol, 2.0 for isomalt and lactitol, 2.1 for maltitol, 2.4 for xylitol, 2.6 for sorbitol, and 3.0 for polyglycitols or hydrogenated starch hydrolysates.  Polyols. The eight polyols approved for use in the U.S. are erythritol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, polyglycitols (hydrogenated starch hydrolysates), sorbitol, and xylitol. FDA-Approved Non-nutritive Sweeterners Firming Texturizers  Thermal processing or freezing of plat tissues usually causes softening because the cellular structure is modified.  Calcium salts (0.1–0.25%) are frequently added.  Fruits, including tomatoes, berries and apple slices are commonly firmed by adding one or more calcium salts prior to canning or freezing. Stabilizers and Thickeners  Hydrocolloid materials  Provide stabilization for emulsions, suspensions and foams, and general thickening properties.  Many stabilizers and thickeners are polysaccharides, such as gum arabic, guar gum, carboxymethylcellulose, carrageenan, agar, starch, and pectin.  Stabilizers are substances that increase stability and thickness by helping foods remain in an emulsion and retain physical characteristics.  Ingredients that normally do not mix, such as oil and water, need stabilizers. Many low-fat foods are dependent on stabilizers. Lecithin, agar-agar, carrageenan and pectin are common in ice cream, margarine, dairy products, salad dressings and mayonnaise.  Arabic Gums  Gum Arabic (GA) or Acacia gum is an edible biopolymer obtained as exudates of mature trees of Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal  The exudate is a non-viscous liquid, rich in soluble fibers.  GA is a complex mixture of macromolecules of different size and composition (mainly carbohydrates and proteins).  The chemical composition of GA is complex and consists of a group of macromolecules  characterized by a high proportion of carbohydrates (>97%), which are predominantly composed of D-galactose and L-arabinose units and a low proportion of proteins (65% galacturonic acid. Properties of pectin 1. Pectins are soluble in pure water 2. Dry powdered pectin, when added to water, has a tendency to hydrate very rapidly, forming clumps. 3. The most important use of pectin is based on its ability to form gels. 4. HM-pectin (high-methoxy) forms gels with sugar and acid. 5. Pectin has applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Pectin favaorably influences cholesterol levels in blood - help reduce blood cholesterol. 6. Being effective in removing lead and mercury from the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory organs Properties and uses of pectin 7. Pectin reduces rate of digestion by immobilising food components in the intestine. This results in less absorption of food. The thickness of the pectin layer influences the absorption by prohibiting contact between the intestinal enzyme and the food. 8. large waterbinding capacity, pectin gives a feeling of satiety, thus reducing food consumption Why is pectin important in the field of nutrition and in the food and health industry? Freitas et al., 2021 Why is pectin important in the field of nutrition and in the food and health industry? ❖ Pectin improved the sensory properties and general acceptance of the yoghurt, while the microbial load increased in response to the increase of the pectin content. ❖ Pectin is considered a soluble dietary fiber with several beneficial gastrointestinal and physiological effects - including the delay of gastrointestinal emptying and therefore decreasing the gastrointestinal transit time, the reduction of glucose absorption and an increase in fecal mass (Lara-Espinoza et al., 2018 ).  A diet rich in pectin results in a decrease of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the blood without affecting the levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) Gunness and Gidley (2010) ,  Anti-diabetic effect of citrus pectin in type 2 diabetic rats and its potential mechanism of action (Liu et al. (2016) )  Intestinal fermentation of pectin and other types of dietary fiber plays a vital role in the prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome, intestinal disorders (such as ulcerative colitis), various cancers, Crohn’s disease, hypertension, diarrhea and obesity ( Gullón et al., 2013 ). Fat Replacers  Fat replacers- when fat is either partially or completely omitted from foods, the properties of the foods are altered, and it is necessary to replace it by some other ingredient or component.  Fat substitutes- substances provide identical physical and sensory properties to fat, but without calories.  Fat mimetics- other ingredients which do not possess full functional equivalency to fats. Appearance Control and Clarifying Agents  Formation of hazes or sediments and oxidative deterioration in beer, wine and fruit juices.  Anthocyanins, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins and tannins are natural phenolic substances involved in formation of hazes or sediments and oxidative deterioration.  Diatomaceous earth- filter aids to remove preformed haze.  Bentonite- clarifying agent for wines to preclude protein precipitation.  Gelatin- clarify beverages, addition to apple juice causes aggregation and precipitation of a gelatin- tannin complex. Flour Bleaching Agents and Bread Improvers  Freshly milled wheat flour has a pale yellow tint and yields a sticky dough that does not handle or bake well.  When the flour is stored, it slowly becomes white and undergoes an aging or maturing process that improves its baking qualities.  Chemical treatments to accelerate these natural processes.  Benzoyl peroxide- exhibits a bleaching or decolorizing action but does not influence baking properties. Anticaking Agents  To maintain free-flowing characteristics of granular and powdered forms of foods that are hygroscopic in nature.  Absorb excess moisture  Coat particles to impart a degree of water repellency  Provide an insoluble particulate diluent  Calcium silicate is used to prevent caking in baking powder, in table salts and in other foods and food ingredients.  Bashir, O.; Hussain, S.Z.; Ameer, K.; Amin, T.; Beenish; Ahmed, I.A.M.; Aljobair, M.O.; Gani, G.; Mir, S.A.; Ayaz, Q.; et al. Influence of Anticaking Agents and Storage Conditions on Quality Characteristics of Spray Dried Apricot Powder: Shelf Life Prediction Studies Using Guggenheim-Anderson- de Boer (GAB) Model. Foods 2023, 12, 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010171 Anticaking Agents Calcium silicate,  including synthetic calcium silicate, may be safely used in food in accordance with the following prescribed conditions:  (a) It is used as an anticaking agent in food in an amount not in excess of that reasonably required to produce its intended effect.  (b) It will not exceed 2 percent by weight of the food, except that it may be present up to 5 percent by weight of baking powder. Iron ammonium citrate  It may be safely used in food in accordance with the following prescribed conditions:  (a) The additive is the chemical green ferric ammonium citrate.  (b) The additive is used, or intended for use as an anticaking agent in salt for human consumption so that the level of iron ammonium citrate does not exceed 25 parts per million (0.0025 percent) in the finished salt.  (c) To assure safe use of the additive the label or labeling of the additive shall bear, in addition to the other information required by the Act:  (1) The name of the additive.  (2) Adequate directions to provide a final product that complies with the limitations prescribed in paragraph (b) of this section. Anticaking Agents Silicone dioxide  The food additive silicon dioxide may be safely used in food in accordance with the following conditions:  (a) The food additive is manufactured by vapor phase hydrolysis or by other means whereby the particle size is such as to accomplish the intended effect.  (b) It is used as an anticaking agent, subject to the following conditions:  (1) It is used in only those foods in which the additive has been demonstrated to have an anticaking effect.  (2) It is used in an amount not in excess of that reasonably required to produce its intended effect.  (3) It is used in an amount not to exceed 2 percent by weight of the food.  (c) It is used or intended for use as a stabilizer in the production of beer, and is removed from the beer by filtration prior to final processing.  (d) It is used or intended for use as an adsorbent for dl-a- tocopheryl acetate and pantothenyl alcohol in tableted foods for special dietary use, in an amount not greater than that required to accomplish the intended physical or technical effect. Gases and Propellants  Nitrogen and carbon dioxide- for oxygen removal  Carbon dioxide (carbonation)- add to liquid products such as carbonated soft drinks, beer, some wines and certain fruit juices.  Nitrous oxide, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide- principal propellants for pressure dispensing of foods.  64 FOOD PRESERVATION WITH CHEMICALS  Food Preservatives 65 Permission control and regulated by:  Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  Codex Alimentarius  Generally recognized as safe (GRAS)  Government agency policies  Food Act Regulation 1985  Benzoic acid & parabens Glucose oxidase Propionates Sucrose fatty acid esthers Sorbic acid Acid ionic sanitizer Sulfur dioxide & sulfites Dimethyl dicarbonate Nitrites & nitrates FOOD PRESERVATIVES NaCl & sugars Diethylpyrocarbonate Acetic & lactic acid Ethanol Antibiotics & bacteriocins Hydrogen peroxide Antifungal agent Sodium diacetate Ethylene & propylene oxide 66  Benzoic Acid and the Parabens 67  Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) and its sodium salt (C7H5NaO2), along with the esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (parabens).  The antimicrobial activity of benzoate is related to pH, the greatest activity being at low pH values.  These compounds are most active at the lowest pH values of foods and essentially ineffective at neutral values.  High-acid products such as apple cider, soft drinks, tomato ketchup, and salad dressings.  Benzoate acts essentially as a mold and yeast inhibitor  Sorbic Acid 68  Sorbic acid (CH3CH—CHCH—CHCOOH) is employed as a food preservative, usually as the calcium, sodium, or potassium salt.  Permissible in foods at levels not to exceed 0.2%.  Like sodium benzoate, they are more effective in acid foods than in neutral foods and tend to be on par with the benzoates as fungal inhibitors.  The resistance of the lactic acid bacteria to sorbate, especially at pH 4.5 or above, permits its use as a fungistat in products that undergo lactic fermentations.  Widest use of sorbates is as fungistats in products such as cheeses, bakery products, fruit juices, beverages, salad dressings, and etc.  The Propionates 69  Propionic acid is a three-carbon organic acid with the structure CH3CH2COOH.  This acid and its calcium and sodium salts are permitted in breads, cakes, certain cheese, and other foods, primarily as a mold inhibitor.  They are consequently active in low-acid foods.  Tend to be highly specific against molds, with the inhibitory action being primarily fungistatic rather than fungicidal.  Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites 70  Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and the sodium and potassium salts of sulfite (=SO3), bisulfite (—HSO3), and metabisulfite (=S2O5) all appear to act similarly.  Sulfur dioxide is used in its gaseous or liquid form or in the form of one or more of its neutral or acid salts on dried fruits, in lemon juice, molasses, wines, fruit juices, and others.  Nitrites and Nitrates 71  Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and sodium nitrite (NaNO2) are used in curing formulas for meats because they stabilize red meat color, inhibit some spoilage and food poisoning organisms, and contribute to flavor development.  NaCl and Sugars 72  Plasmolysis, which results in growth inhibition and possibly death.  The higher the concentration, the greater are the preservative and drying effects.  Most nonmarine bacteria can be inhibited by 20% or less of NaCl.  Organisms that can grow in the presence of and require high concentrations of salt are referred to as halophiles.  Sugars require about six times more sucrose than NaCl to effect the same degree of inhibition.  The most common uses of sugars as preserving agents are in the making of fruit preserves, candies, condensed milk, and the like.  Acetic and Lactic Acid 73  Presence in the subject foods is due to their production within the food by lactic acid bacteria.  Products such as pickles, sauerkraut, and fermented milks, among others, are created by the fermentative activities by various lactic acid bacteria, which produce acetic, lactic, and other acids.  Organic acids are employed to wash and sanitize animal carcasses after slaughter to reduce their carriage of pathogens and to increase product shelf life.  Antibiotics and Bacteriocins 74  Antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by microorganisms that inhibit or kill a wide spectrum of other microorganisms.  Most of the useful ones are produced by molds and bacteria of the genus Streptomyces. Some antibiotic like substances are produced by Bacillus spp., and at least one, nisin, is produced by some strains of Lactococcus lactis.  Three antibiotics have been investigated extensively as heat adjuncts for canned foods: subtilin, tylosin, and nisin.  Nisin, however, is used most widely in cheeses.  Antifungal Agents for Fruits 75  Benomyl is applied uniformly over the entire surface of fruits.  It can penetrate the surface of some vegetables and is used worldwide to control crown rot and anthracnose of bananas, and stem-end rots of citrus fruits.  Benomyl and thiabendazole are effective in controlling dry rot caused by Fusarium spp.  Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is employed for longterm storage to prevent the spread of Botrytis in grapes.  An extract of a Trichoderma sp. (6-pentyl-apyrone, 6- PAP) is an effective inhibitor of Botrytis and Armillaria strains that destroy kiwi fruit in New Zealand.  Ethylene and Propylene Oxides 76  Ethylene and propylene oxides, along with ethyl and methyl formate (HCOOC2H5 and HCOOCH3, respectively).  The oxides exist as gases and are employed as fumigants in the food industry.  The oxides are applied to dried fruits, nuts, spices, and so forth, primarily as antifungal compounds.  Ethylene oxide is used as a gaseous sterilant for flexible and semirigid containers for packaging aseptically processed foods.