The Self: A Cognitive Exploration Notes PDF

**THE SELF: A COGNITIVE EXPLORATION** **Understanding the Sense of Self** - The sense of self refers to the awareness and recognition of one's own identity, including thoughts, feelings, memories, and experiences. It encompasses both personal identity (who we think we are) and social...

**THE SELF: A COGNITIVE EXPLORATION** **Understanding the Sense of Self** - The sense of self refers to the awareness and recognition of one's own identity, including thoughts, feelings, memories, and experiences. It encompasses both personal identity (who we think we are) and social identity (how we relate to others). **Cognitive Perspective on the Self** - **Self-Reflective Abilities**: - The capacity to think about one's own cognitive processes. This ability allows individuals to evaluate their thoughts and adjust their behavior accordingly. - Self-reflection aids in assessing past experiences and predicting future outcomes, contributing to better decision-making and problem-solving. - **Self-Monitoring Abilities**: - Self-monitoring involves recognizing and adjusting one's behavior based on internal standards and external feedback. - Effective self-monitoring is crucial in social contexts, facilitating empathy and understanding of social cues, which enhances interpersonal relationships and community dynamics. **Brain Structures Involved in Self-Processing** - **Key Areas**: - **Prefrontal Cortex**: Involved in higher-order cognitive functions, including self-referential processing, decision-making, and planning. - **Anterior Cingulate Cortex**: Associated with emotional regulation and social cognition. It also helps manage conflict between self-interest and social expectations, influencing self-awareness. - **Default Mode Network**: Active during self-referential thought and introspection. - **Hippocampus**: involved in memory formation and retrieval - **Amygdala**: associated with emotional processing and plays a role in how we perceive and evaluate ourselves in relation to others **Disorders of Self** - **Depersonalization/Derealization**: Feeling detached from oneself or reality. - **Dissociative Disorders**: Fragmentation of identity or sense of self. - **Schizophrenia**: Distorted self-experience and perception of reality. - **Autism Spectrum Disorders**: Differences in self-awareness and social cognition. - **Borderline** **Personality Disorder:** instability in self-image, relationships and emotions - **Body Dysmorphic Disorder:** reoccupation with perceived flaws in one's physical appearance **Perspectives on Self** - **Evolutionary Perspective**: - Development of self-awareness as a survival mechanism. - Social species benefit from understanding self in relation to others. - **Developmental Perspective**: - Self-concept evolves from childhood through social interactions and cognitive growth. - Importance of attachment and social feedback in shaping self-identity. - **Neuroscience Perspective**: - Neuroimaging studies reveal brain activity patterns associated with self-related thoughts. - Understanding brain mechanisms behind self-awareness can inform treatment for related disorders. - **Psychopathological Perspective**: - Exploration of how disruptions in self-processing contribute to mental health disorders. - Treatment approaches may focus on rebuilding a coherent sense of self. ------------------------------------------------------------- **THEORIES OF CHANGE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PAST TO PRESENT** ------------------------------------------------------------- Nature refers to how genetics influence an individual\'s personality, whereas nurture refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development. Whether nature or nurture plays a bigger role in personality and development is one of the oldest philosophical debates within the field of psychology. The [diathesis-stress model](https://www.simplypsychology.org/diathesis-stress-model.html) posits that individuals inherit a genetic predisposition (diathesis) to a disorder, which is then activated or exacerbated by environmental stressors (Monroe & Simons, 1991). ***IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE?*** - **John Locke** said that young child is a Tabula Rasa upon which society writes - **Jean Jacques Rousseau** believed that children are born 'noble savages' who develop according to their own positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by society - Do we assert our own will, or do we just react to what society/environment is forcing upon us? ***[Psychoanalytic Perspective]*** ***[Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development]*** **Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months):** baby's chief source of pleasure involves mouth-oriented and activities (sucking and feeding) **Anal Stage (12-18 months to 3 years):** child derives sensual gratification from withholding and expelling feces. Zone of gratification is anal region, and toilet training is important activity **Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years):** child becomes attached to parent of the other sex and later identifies with same-sex parent. Superego develops. Zone of gratification shifts to genital region **Latency Stage (6 years to puberty):** time of relative calm between more turbulent stages **Genital Stage ((puberty through adulthood):** reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channeled into mature adult sexuality ***[Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development]*** - Each stages requires balancing a positive and negative tendency **Basic trust vs. mistrust (birth to 12-18 months):** baby develops sense of whether world is a good and safe place *[Virtue: hope]* **Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (12-18 months to 3 years):** child develops a balance of independence and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt *[Virtue: will]* **Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years):** child develops initiative when trying out new activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt  *[Virtue: purpose]* **Industry vs. inferiority (6 years to puberty):** child must learn skills of the culture or face feelings of incompetence *[Virtue: skill]* **Identity vs. identity confusion (puberty to young adulthood):** adolescent must determine own sense of self ('Who Am I?') or experience confusion about roles *[Virtue: fidelity]* **Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood):** person seeks to make commitments to others; if unsuccessful, may suffer from isolation and self-absorption *[Virtue: love]* **Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood):** mature adults is concerned with establishing and guiding next generation or else feels personal impoverishment *[Virtue: care]* **Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood):** older adult achieves acceptance of own life, allowing acceptance of death, or else despairs over inability to relive life *[Virtue: wisdom]* ***[Learning Perspective]*** **Behaviorism:** learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of the environment in causing observable behavior. The two kinds of associative learning are *classical conditioning* and *operant conditioning* ***[Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning]*:** learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response ***[B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning]*:** learning based on association of behavior with its consequences **Reinforcement** is the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated **Punishment** is the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition ***[Bandura's Social Learning Theory]*:** theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called as social cognitive theory ***[Cognitive Perspective]*** ***[Piaget's Theory and Stages of Development]*** Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought **Sensorimotor (0-2 years old)** Coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the world. Language used for demands and cataloging. Object permanence is developed **Preoperational (2-7 years old)** Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is developed **Concrete operational (7-11 years old)** Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts **Formal operational (11 years old and older)** Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be applied to another  ***[Ecological Systems Theory]*** Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, Ecological Systems Theory explains how individuals develop within a complex system of relationships influenced by various environmental contexts. 1. **Microsystem:** - The immediate environment where a person interacts directly (e.g., family, school, peers). - Influences include relationships and daily experiences. 2. **Mesosystem:** - Interconnections between different microsystems (e.g., interactions between family and school). - Highlights how relationships in one context affect others. 3. **Exosystem:** - External environmental settings that indirectly influence an individual (e.g., a parent\'s workplace, community resources). - Although not directly involved, individuals can be affected by decisions made in this system. 4. **Macrosystem:** - The broader cultural and societal context (e.g., cultural values, laws, economic conditions). - Shapes attitudes and behaviors through overarching norms and ideologies. 5. **Chronosystem:** - The dimension of time, which encompasses changes and transitions over the lifespan. - Acknowledges how historical events and life changes impact development (e.g., economic downturns, family relocations). ***[Lev Vygotsky\'s Sociocultural Theory]*** - **Social Interaction:**\ Vygotsky posited that social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development. He believed that learning is inherently a social process, where individuals learn from one another through dialogue and shared experiences. - **Cultural Context:**\ Vygotsky emphasized that cognitive development cannot be separated from the cultural context in which it occurs. Culture provides the tools and frameworks that shape thinking and learning. **Key Concepts:** - **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):**\ This concept refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (e.g., a teacher or peer). The ZPD highlights the potential for learning and growth when appropriate support is provided. - **Scaffolding:**\ Scaffolding involves providing temporary support to help learners accomplish tasks within their ZPD. As learners gain skills and confidence, this support is gradually removed, fostering independence and mastery. - **Cultural Tools:**\ Vygotsky identified tools such as language, symbols, and various technologies that mediate our understanding of the world. These tools are culturally specific and influence how individuals think and learn. - **Language and Thought:**\ Vygotsky argued that language is a primary medium through which thought develops. He distinguished between external speech (used for communication) and internal speech (self-talk), emphasizing that internalizing language leads to higher-order thinking.