Week 1 - Bio PDF

What is Learning?   \*\*Definition:\*\* \- Learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience. \- It involves lasting changes in behaviour, physiological, or neural responses to environmental events.   \*\*Comparison:\*\* \- Unlike inanimate objects (e.g., a rock), living...

What is Learning?   \*\*Definition:\*\* \- Learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience. \- It involves lasting changes in behaviour, physiological, or neural responses to environmental events.   \*\*Comparison:\*\* \- Unlike inanimate objects (e.g., a rock), living beings can adapt and respond to their environment.   \*\*Human vs. Animal Learning:\*\* \- The goal is to understand how humans learn. \- Animal learning is used as a paradigm to draw parallels.   \#\#\# Motor Learning Example: \- \*\*Sport Example:\*\* Techball (mix of table tennis and football). \- \*\*Operant Conditioning Example:\*\* Pigeons playing table tennis and being rewarded with food (Skinnerian conditioning).   \#\#\# Artificial Agents Learning: \- Overview of how artificial agents learn inspired by early 20th-century psychologists. \- Optional tutorial for those interested in computing aspects.   \#\#\# Learning Concepts:   \*\*1. What is Learning?\*\* \- Learning is the ability to adapt to the environment. \- Associated with a lasting change in behavioral, physiological, or neural responses.   \*\*2. Different Aspects of Learning:\*\* \- \*\*Behavioral:\*\* Strategy and technique changes. \- \*\*Physiological:\*\* Muscle development and coordination patterns. \- \*\*Neurological:\*\* Changes in neurochemistry facilitating learning.   \#\#\# Non-Associative Learning: \- Involves adjusting to environmental stimuli without forming new associations. \- Examples include habituation and sensitization.   \#\#\#\# Habituation: \- Decrease in response to a repeated, non-threatening stimulus. \- Example: Tuning out a buzzing refrigerator noise over time.   \#\#\#\# Sensitization: \- Increase in response to a repeated stimulus, often due to its significance or potential threat. \- Example: Becoming more sensitive to rustling bushes if it signals danger.   \#\#\# Associative Learning: \- Forming associations between stimuli and responses. \- Example: Associating rustling bushes with potential danger. \- Example: Teaching a dog tricks using food rewards.   \*\*Key Differences:\*\* \- \*\*Associative Learning:\*\* Involves forming new connections between stimuli and responses. \- \*\*Non-Associative Learning:\*\* Adjusting the intensity of responses to stimuli without forming new connections.   \#\#\# Summary: \- Learning is a process of adaptation and involves lasting changes. \- Non-associative learning focuses on habituation and sensitization. \- Associative learning involves creating new links between stimuli and responses.   1\. \*\*Introduction to Learning\*\* \- Definition: Acquisition of knowledge and skills through experience. \- Focus: Humans, with insights from animal learning. \- Goal: Understanding how humans learn. \- Examples: Motor learning (Techball, Pigeons playing table tennis), Artificial agents learning.   2\. \*\*Types of Learning\*\* \- \*\*Non-Associative Learning\*\* \- \*\*Habituation\*\*: Decreased response to repeated stimulus. \- \*\*Sensitization\*\*: Increased response to repeated stimulus. \- If time permits: \*\*Classical Conditioning\*\*: Overview of key components.   3\. \*\*Non-Associative Learning Details\*\* \- \*\*Habituation\*\* \- Definition: Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. \- Purpose: Tune out unimportant stimuli to focus on what matters. \- Examples: \- Tuning out background noise in a cafe. \- Ignoring a noisy fridge. \- Becoming less responsive to repetitive sounds like a ticking clock or background traffic. \- Animals adapting to continuous stimuli like a cat ignoring a child's drumming.   \- \*\*Sensitization\*\* \- Definition: Increased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. \- Purpose: Heighten awareness to important stimuli, especially in anticipation of something significant. \- Examples: \- Becoming more irritated by a repeatedly clicking pen. \- Being more sensitive to the sound of a mosquito.   4\. \*\*Distinguishing from Sensory Adaptation\*\* \- \*\*Sensory Adaptation\*\*: Physiological reduction in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. \- Examples: \- Adjusting to cold water in a bath. \- Eyes adapting to darkness in a theater. \- Differences: \- Sensory adaptation is a physiological process. \- Habituation and sensitization are psychological processes and can be consciously controlled.   5\. \*\*Habituation and Sensitization Mechanisms\*\* \- \*\*Habituation\*\* \- Process: Gradual decrease in responsiveness. \- Example: Ignoring background noise over time. \- \*\*Sensitization\*\* \- Process: Increase in responsiveness. \- Example: Becoming more alert to potential dangers after a startling event.   6\. \*\*Experimental Evidence\*\* \- Infant studies showing different responses to simple vs. complex stimuli. \- Simple stimuli: Infants habituate quickly. \- Complex stimuli: Infants show increased interest before eventually habituating.     \*\*Introduction to Learning\*\*   \- Learning is acquiring knowledge and skills through experience. \- In psychology, we focus on human learning but also use animal models. \- Examples of learning include complex motor skills like Techball and operant conditioning in pigeons. \- Artificial intelligence also draws from psychological principles of learning.   \*\*What is Learning?\*\*   \- Learning involves lasting changes in behavior, physiology, or neural responses to environmental events. \- It helps individuals adapt to their environment. \- Changes can be behavioral (e.g., strategies, techniques), physiological (e.g., muscle coordination), or neurological (e.g., neurochemical changes).   \*\*Non-Associative Learning\*\*   \- \*\*Habituation\*\*: Decreasing response to a stimulus over time. \- Purpose: Tune out unimportant stimuli. \- Example: Ignoring a noisy fridge, adapting to background traffic noise. \- Sensory adaptation vs. habituation: \- Sensory adaptation: Physiological; e.g., adjusting to cold water. \- Habituation: Psychological; e.g., tuning out background noise but can still choose to notice it.   \- \*\*Sensitization\*\*: Increasing response to a stimulus over time. \- Purpose: Heighten sensitivity to important or potentially threatening stimuli. \- Example: Becoming more sensitive to a mosquito\'s buzz.   \*\*Habituation Examples\*\*   \- Noise from a fridge. \- Partner's perfume. \- Traffic noise. \- Eating the same food repeatedly at a party.   \*\*Sensitization Examples\*\*   \- Clicking pen in a quiet room. \- Mosquito buzz while trying to sleep.   \*\*Experimental Evidence\*\*   \- Infants show different habituation patterns to simple vs. complex stimuli. \- Simple stimuli: Quick habituation. \- Complex stimuli: Initial increased interest, followed by habituation.   \*\*Conclusion\*\*   \- Non-associative learning helps us manage and respond to our environment effectively. \- Understanding these processes provides insights into human behavior and learning mechanisms.   \*\*Habituation and Sensitization: Key Concepts and Differences\*\*   Habituation and sensitization are fundamental concepts in non-associative learning. Let\'s summarize the key points and differences:   1\. \*\*Habituation\*\*: \- \*\*Definition\*\*: Habituation is the decrease in response to a repeated, non-threatening stimulus over time. \- \*\*Example\*\*: Tuning out the sound of a buzzing refrigerator after being exposed to it repeatedly. \- \*\*Characteristics\*\*: \- \*\*Stimulus-Specific\*\*: The decreased response is specific to the repeated stimulus. \- \*\*Low Intensity\*\*: Typically occurs with low-intensity, non-threatening stimuli. \- \*\*Time Course\*\*: Gradual reduction in response over time. \- \*\*Reversibility\*\*: If a new stimulus interrupts, dishabituation can occur, where the response to the original stimulus can temporarily return.   2\. \*\*Sensitization\*\*: \- \*\*Definition\*\*: Sensitization is the increased response to a stimulus following repeated exposure, often when the stimulus is intense or significant. \- \*\*Example\*\*: Becoming more reactive to the sound of a mosquito because it can bite and potentially carry diseases. \- \*\*Characteristics\*\*: \- \*\*Generalization\*\*: Increased response can generalize to other similar stimuli. \- \*\*High Intensity\*\*: Typically occurs with high-intensity or biologically significant stimuli. \- \*\*Time Course\*\*: Rapid increase in response initially, which may decrease over time. \- \*\*Persistence\*\*: Often persists longer than habituation, especially if the stimulus is perceived as a threat.   3\. \*\*Dual Process Theory\*\*: \- \*\*Integration\*\*: Habituation and sensitization are not two sides of the same coin but are separate processes that interact. \- \*\*Mechanism\*\*: Overall response to a stimulus is the net result of both habituation and sensitization processes. \- \*\*Competition\*\*: There is a competition between the processes, where one can dominate depending on the context and characteristics of the stimulus.   4\. \*\*Experimental Evidence\*\*: \- \*\*Infant Studies\*\*: Infants habituate to a simple visual stimulus (like a checkerboard) over time. If a new auditory stimulus is introduced, they become dishabituated and reorient to the visual stimulus upon its return, demonstrating the interplay of habituation and sensitization. \- \*\*Biological Relevance\*\*: Evolutionary perspectives suggest that sensitization to biologically relevant stimuli (like crying babies or mosquito sounds) helps in survival and caregiving.   5\. \*\*Implications for Learning\*\*: \- \*\*Non-Associative Learning\*\*: Both habituation and sensitization are forms of non-associative learning, where the response changes due to repeated exposure without the need for a reward or punishment. \- \*\*Application\*\*: Understanding these processes helps in designing environments and interventions, such as minimizing distracting background noise (habituation) or recognizing when increased sensitivity to certain stimuli (sensitization) may indicate stress or anxiety.   By understanding these concepts, we can better appreciate how organisms interact with their environment and adapt to repeated stimuli. This knowledge is crucial in fields like psychology, education, and neuroscience, where managing responses to stimuli can significantly impact well-being and learning outcomes.   \#\#\# Study Notes: Habituation, Sensitization, and Sensory Adaptation   \#\#\#\# Key Concepts   1\. \*\*Habituation and Sensitization\*\* \- \*\*Habituation\*\*: A decrease in response to a repeated, benign stimulus over time. \- \*\*Sensitization\*\*: An increase in response to a repeated stimulus, especially if it\'s strong or noxious.   2\. \*\*Interaction Between Habituation and Sensitization\*\* \- These processes may interact with each other and are independent. \- The net response observed in behavior is a sum of both habituation and sensitization effects.   3\. \*\*Magnitude of Response\*\* \- The size of deviation from a baseline response does not necessarily indicate habituation or sensitization. \- Instead, think about how the responses interact and sum up to determine the overall effect.   \#\#\#\# Sensory Adaptation vs. Habituation   1\. \*\*Sensory Adaptation\*\* \- A physiological process where receptors become less responsive to an unchanging stimulus. \- Temporary and does not involve lasting change. \- Examples: Retinal receptors fatigue when exposed to constant light, resulting in decreased response.   2\. \*\*Habituation\*\* \- A psychological process involving a decrease in response due to repeated exposure to a stimulus. \- It is a top-down process involving attention and learning. \- Examples: Getting used to a constant background noise and no longer noticing it.   \#\#\#\# Visual Illusions \- Visual illusions can exploit receptor field activity. \- Attentional aspects are involved in learning to see the figure in the noise. \- Some illusions rely on how the brain processes changes and patterns in the visual field.   \#\#\#\# Muscle Memory \- Muscle memory involves lasting changes in muscle coordination and response due to practice. \- It is a form of implicit memory where physical practice leads to improved performance without conscious effort.   \#\#\#\# PTSD and Sensitization \- PTSD triggers often involve associative learning where neutral stimuli become associated with traumatic events. \- Sensitization in PTSD can lead to heightened responses to certain stimuli, such as loud noises resembling gunfire.   \#\#\# Important Distinctions   1\. \*\*Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processes\*\* \- \*\*Top-Down\*\*: Involves voluntary attention and cognitive processes (e.g., habituation). \- \*\*Bottom-Up\*\*: Involves automatic, physiological responses (e.g., sensory adaptation).   2\. \*\*Temporary vs. Lasting Changes\*\* \- \*\*Temporary\*\*: Sensory adaptation leads to temporary receptor fatigue. \- \*\*Lasting\*\*: Habituation, sensitization, and muscle memory can lead to long-term changes in behavior or physiology.   \#\#\#\# Additional Points   \- We tend to habituate more to softer, less noticeable stimuli and sensitize more to louder, more prominent stimuli. \- Implicit memory involves learning and recall without conscious awareness, likely involving neurological changes. \- Associative learning (e.g., in PTSD) links certain stimuli to specific experiences, leading to conditioned responses.   \#\#\# Conclusion Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending how we adapt and respond to our environment, both physiologically and psychologically. The interplay between habituation, sensitization, and sensory adaptation highlights the complexity of our sensory and cognitive systems in managing stimuli.   \#\#\# Study Notes: Habituation, Sensitization, Sensory Adaptation, and PTSD   \#\#\#\# Key Concepts   1\. \*\*Habituation and Sensitization\*\* \- \*\*Habituation\*\*: Decrease in response to a repeated, benign stimulus over time. Example: Getting used to background noise. \- \*\*Sensitization\*\*: Increase in response to a repeated stimulus, especially if it\'s strong or noxious. Example: Becoming more responsive to loud sounds after repeated exposure.   2\. \*\*Interaction Between Habituation and Sensitization\*\* \- Independent processes that can interact. \- The overall response to a stimulus can be the sum of both habituation and sensitization effects.   3\. \*\*Magnitude of Response\*\* \- The size of deviation from a baseline response does not necessarily indicate habituation or sensitization. \- Instead, think about how the responses interact and sum up to determine the overall effect.   \#\#\#\# Sensory Adaptation vs. Habituation   1\. \*\*Sensory Adaptation\*\* \- A physiological process where receptors become less responsive to an unchanging stimulus. \- Temporary and does not involve lasting change. \- Example: Retinal receptors fatigue when exposed to constant light, resulting in decreased response.   2\. \*\*Habituation\*\* \- A psychological process involving a decrease in response due to repeated exposure to a stimulus. \- It is a top-down process involving attention and learning. \- Example: Getting used to a constant background noise and no longer noticing it.   \#\#\#\# Visual Illusions \- Visual illusions exploit receptor field activity. \- Attentional aspects are involved in learning to see the figure in the noise. \- Some illusions rely on how the brain processes changes and patterns in the visual field.   \#\#\#\# Muscle Memory \- Muscle memory involves lasting changes in muscle coordination and response due to practice. \- It is a form of implicit memory where physical practice leads to improved performance without conscious effort.   \#\#\#\# PTSD and Sensitization \- PTSD triggers often involve associative learning where neutral stimuli become associated with traumatic events. \- Sensitization in PTSD can lead to heightened responses to certain stimuli, such as loud noises resembling gunfire.   \#\#\# Important Distinctions   1\. \*\*Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processes\*\* \- \*\*Top-Down\*\*: Involves voluntary attention and cognitive processes (e.g., habituation). \- \*\*Bottom-Up\*\*: Involves automatic, physiological responses (e.g., sensory adaptation).   2\. \*\*Temporary vs. Lasting Changes\*\* \- \*\*Temporary\*\*: Sensory adaptation leads to temporary receptor fatigue. \- \*\*Lasting\*\*: Habituation, sensitization, and muscle memory can lead to long-term changes in behavior or physiology.   \#\#\#\# Neurodiversity and Sensory Processing \- Neurodiversity acknowledges the range of differences in individual brain function and behavioral traits. \- Neurodivergent individuals (e.g., those with autism or ADHD) may experience amplified or muted responses to stimuli. \- Sensitivity to stimuli can vary widely, with some individuals being more responsive to certain stimuli than others.   \#\#\# Conclusion Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending how we adapt and respond to our environment, both physiologically and psychologically. The interplay between habituation, sensitization, and sensory adaptation highlights the complexity of our sensory and cognitive systems in managing stimuli.     Tutorial   Motor learning   Definition: A process that involves the acquisition, retention, and transfer of motor skills through practice, resulting in the improvement of movement performance and the ability to adapt to changing task demands   Key features Acquisition\*: the formation of new movement patterns and the refinement of existing ones Retention\*: the ability to retain the learned motor skill over time Transfer: the capacity to apply the acquired motor skills to new and different situations or tasks Adaptation: the ability to modify motor skills in response to changing environmental or task demands.   Practice schedules There are two types massed practice and spaced practice. Massed practice: The amount of practice time in a trial is greater than the amount of rest between trials Spaced practice: The amount of rest between trials equals or exceeds the amount of time in a trial, leading to a somewhat more "restful" practice sequence   Which is more effective? There is some debate in terms of which practice schedule is more effective There is no straightforward answer, It depends on: Difficulty or complexity of the task, Time, Rest period   Summary - Massed practice is typically more effective than spaced practice when the learning task requires the acquisition of a skill or the memorisation of information within a short period of time. - It is particularly useful when immediate performance or short-term retention is the primary goal. - However, for enduring knowledge retention or complex cognitive skills, spaced practice is generally recommended.   Performance versus learning - Performance variables have short-term effects on performance: Fatigue, Arousal, Motivation, Attention - Learning variables have long-term or relatively permanent effects on performance: Practice and repetition, Feedback and error correction, Transfer of learning   Type of task - discrete versus continuous tasks - Discrete task: Massed practice is beneficial for discrete tasks, i.e., tasks that have a specific beginning or an end, Short and repetitive, Example: forehand shot in tennis - Continuous task: Spaced practice is suitable for continuous tasks, i.e., tasks that involve sustained and continuous engagement without discrete start or stop points, Requires breaks, Example: Studying for a driving test   How do we judge whether a motor skill is learned? - Motor learning is inferred from performance - Retention Test: Conducted after a learning period to measure an individual\'s ability to retain or remember the previously learned information or skills - Transfer Test: Measures an individual\'s ability to apply previously learned knowledge or skills to new or different contexts or tasks   Reactive inhibition - Decrease in performance or learning due to extensive training (Hull, 1943) - In the experiment, this is the slowing of RT as one continuously performs a motor task - Extensive or excessive training can disrupt learning how? Fatigue and physical, exhaustion, Plateauing, Reduced motivation, Reduced problem solving   Reminiscence - \'Increments in learning which occur during a rest period\' (Hovland, 1951) - \'Temporary improvement in performance without practice\' (Osgood, 1958) - It typically occurs after a period of time has passed without practice or exposure to the learned material