Hypnosis and Drugs PDF

Module 8: Hypnosis and Drugs HYPNOSIS  HYPNOSIS Definition – Procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or hypnotists suggests that a person will experience changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors  HYPNO...

Module 8: Hypnosis and Drugs HYPNOSIS  HYPNOSIS Definition – Procedure in which a researcher, clinician, or hypnotists suggests that a person will experience changes in sensation, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors  HYPNOSIS 20% of adults have low susceptibility – Means they can’t be easily hypnotized 65 to 70% have medium susceptibility 10 to 15% have high susceptibility Who can be hypnotized? – Not correlated with introversion, extraversion, social position, intelligence, willpower, sex, compliance, gullibility, motivation, or placebo responsiveness  HYPNOSIS Who is susceptible? – Individuals with the remarkable ability to respond to imaginative suggestions – Best-known test: Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale – Asks individuals to carry out a series of both simple and complex suggestions – High scorers are usually easily hypnotized  HYPNOSIS How is someone hypnotized? – Hypnotic induction – Refers to inducing hypnosis by first asking a person to either stare at an object or close his or her eyes and then suggesting that the person is becoming very relaxed  HYPNOSIS Theories of hypnosis – Altered states theory holds that hypnosis puts a person into an altered state of consciousness, during which he or she is disconnected from reality, which results in being able to experience and respond to various suggestions – Sociocognitive theory behaviors observed during hypnosis result not from being hypnotized, but rather from having the special ability of responding to imaginative suggestions and social pressures  HYPNOSIS Behaviors – Hypnotic analgesia refers to a reduction in pain reported by clients after they underwent hypnosis and received suggestions that reduced their anxiety and promoted relaxation – Posthypnotic suggestion given to the subject during hypnosis about performing a particular behavior to a specific cue when the subject comes out of hypnosis  HYPNOSIS Behaviors – Posthypnotic amnesia not remembering what happened during hypnosis if the hypnotist suggested that, upon awakening, the person would forget what took place during hypnosis people who are instructed to not remember anything usually report not remembering, but when pressed, many of these same people admit they do in fact remember the information  HYPNOSIS Behaviors – Age regression refers to subjects under hypnosis being asked to regress, or return in time, to an earlier age, such as early childhood – Imagined perception refers to experiencing sensations, perceiving stimuli, or performing behaviors that come from one’s imagination  HYPNOSIS Medical and therapeutic applications – Medical and dental use used to reduce pain through hypnotic analgesia, to reduce fear and anxiety by helping individuals relax, or to help patients deal with a terminal disease by motivating them to make the best of a difficult situation – Therapeutic and behavioral uses useful in helping clients reveal their personalities, gain insights into their lives, and arrive at solutions to their problems HYPNOSIS Research Focus: Meditation and School Stress Transcendental Meditation (TM) – Involves assuming a comfortable position, closing eyes, and focusing attention on repeating words or sounds that are supposed to produce an altered state of consciousness. Research Focus: Meditation and School Stress Method – Compare an experimental group (trained to practice TM) to a control group (not trained in TM) who practices either TM or relaxation twice per day over a four-month period Results – Although the experimental and control groups were similar in stress levels at the beginning of the study, after four months the experimental group showed a 36% decrease in stress level.  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Reasons for use – Obtaining pleasure, joy, and euphoria; meeting social expectations; giving in to peer pressure; dealing with or escaping stress, anxiety, and tension; avoiding pain; and achieving altered state of consciousness Psychoactive drugs – Affect nervous system – May alter consciousness and awareness, influence how we sense and perceive things, and modify our moods, feelings, emotions, and thoughts – Psychoactive drugs are both legal (coffee, alcohol, tobacco) and illegal (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, LSD) DRUGS: OVERVIEW  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Definition of terms – Addiction a behavioral pattern of drug abuse marked by an overwhelming compulsive desire to obtain and use the drug; even after stopping, strong tendency to relapse and begin using the drug again – Tolerance after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a period of time, the original dose no longer produces the desired effect, thus requiring increasingly larger doses to get the same effect  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Definition of terms – Dependency refers to a change in the nervous system so that the user now needs to take the drug to prevent the occurrence of painful withdrawal symptoms – Withdrawal symptoms painful physical and psychological symptoms that occur after a drug-dependent person stops using the drug  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Use of drugs – Most recent national statistics show that almost 20 million Americans spend over $64 billion on illegal drugs each year – Drug treatment programs are more cost-effective than imprisonment – Many health professionals recommend reducing illegal drug use by spending more on drug education counseling treatment DRUGS: OVERVIEW  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Effects on nervous system – Drugs affect neurotransmitters, the chemical keys that search for and then either open or close chemical locks to either excite or inhibit neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles – Mimicking some drugs produce their effects by mimicking the way neurotransmitters work – Reuptake some drugs block reuptake  DRUGS: OVERVIEW Effects on nervous system – Drugs affect brain’s reward/pleasure center – Includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area and involves dopamine – Some drugs directly activate the brain’s reward/pleasure center also activated when one eats food, has sex, and does other pleasurable activities DRUGS: OVERVIEW  STIMULANTS Definition – Stimulants, including cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine, increase activity of the central nervous system and result in heightened alertness, arousal, and euphoria, and decreased appetite and fatigue Amphetamines – 1960s: heavily prescribed to treat a wide range of problems, including fatigue, depression, and obesity – 1971: FDA outlawed their prescription for everything except attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy  STIMULANTS Amphetamines – Following a “drug war” on cocaine in the late 1980s, there was a dramatic increase of a form of amphetamine called methamphetamine manufactured in illegal home laboratories in many countries, use or possession of methamphetamine is illegal use is still spreading worldwide  STIMULANTS Amphetamines – Methamphetamine (D-methamphetamine) close to amphetamine in both chemical makeup and its physical and psychological effects can be smoked or snorted produces almost instant high causes marked increase in blood pressure and heart rate produces feelings of enhanced mood, alertness, and energy High risk for addiction  STIMULANTS Amphetamines – Nervous system increases the release of dopamine and also blocks reuptake – Dangers periods of restless activity and repetitive behaviors later, euphoria is replaced with depression, agitation insomnia, and development of true paranoid feelings long-term risks include stroke, liver damage, heart disease, memory loss, and extreme weight loss  STIMULANTS Cocaine – From coca leaves – Can be sniffed or snorted – Absorbed by many of the body’s membranes – Concentrated cocaine is called crack – Effects are very similar to amphetamines – Higher doses can produce anxiety, emotional instability, and suspiciousness  STIMULANTS Cocaine – Nervous system blocks reuptake of dopamine excites dopamine receptors to produce pleasure/euphoria and glutamate to produce cravings for more drug increased physiological and psychological arousal can be used for a local anesthetic when applied to external areas of the body  STIMULANTS Cocaine – Dangers moderate doses – short high (10 to 30 minutes); includes bursts of energy, arousal, and alertness (although users overestimate this) heavy doses – results in serious physical and psychological problems, which may include hallucinations and feelings of bugs crawling under the skin as well as addiction  STIMULANTS Cocaine – Dangers lack of appetite headaches insomnia irritability heart attacks, strokes, seizures damage to cartilage of the nose HIV risk respiratory failure leads to sudden death (can result from low dosages)  STIMULANTS Cocaine – Heavy doses can reduce levels of dopamine receptors in brain Makes user require larger doses to achieve same effect Decreases pleasure in previously normal experiences – Also damages brain in ways that result in greater impulsivity, and difficulty resisting the drug  STIMULANTS Caffeine – Mild stimulant; produces moderate physiological and psychological arousal, including decreased fatigue and drowsiness, feelings of alertness, and improved reaction times – Nervous system caffeine belongs to the chemical class called xanthines blocks certain receptors (adenosine receptors) mild physiological and psychological arousal  STIMULANTS Caffeine – Dangers mild to heavy doses of caffeine can result in addiction and dependency similar to those produced by alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine (two cups of coffee) Abruptly stopping moderate to high doses results in withdrawal symptoms  STIMULANTS Nicotine – In the US, 20% of adults are active smokers – 1,000 children teens begin using cigarettes each day stimulant that triggers the brain’s reward/pleasure center to produce good feelings low doses improve attention, concentration, and short-term memory regular use causes addiction and dependency leads to withdrawal  STIMULANTS Nicotine – Nervous system stimulates the production of dopamine also stops other controlling cells from turning off the pleasure areas – Dangers very addictive Causes 87% of lung cancer deaths and triples risk for heart disease Over half a million die from exposure to second- hand smoke withdrawal symptoms range in severity  DEPRESSANTS Class of drug that slows the central nervous system Alcohol – safe alcohol to drink is ethyl alcohol – level of alcohol is measured in percentage in the blood: blood alcohol content or BAC – after three or four drinks in one hour, BAC will range from 0.08 to 0.1 – national legal definition of being drunk is 0.08 – drink is defined: one cocktail, 5oz glass of wine, one 12oz bottle of beer – effects the nervous system and results in behavioral and emotional changes  DEPRESSANTS Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) – alcohol seems like a stimulant but later depresses physiological and psychological responses – after a few drinks (0.01 to 0.05 BAC), causes friendliness and loss of inhibitions //again, numbers?// – after four or five drinks (0.06-0.10 BAC), impairs motor coordination, cognitive abilities, decision making, and speech – After many drinks (0.4 BAC and higher) may cause coma or death DEPRESSANTS  DEPRESSANTS Alcohol’s effects on the nervous system – Affects many parts of the nervous system – Stimulates GABA neural receptors, leads to feeling less anxious and less inhibited – Also impairs the anterior cingulate cortex, monitors the control of motor actions – Drinkers fail to recognize their impaired motor performance (driving) – High doses: depresses vital breathing reflexes in the medulla (brain stem) – May lead to death  DEPRESSANTS Dangers of alcohol – Hangover; upset stomach, dizziness, fatigue, headache, and depression – Repeated and heavy drinking can result in tolerance, addiction, and dependency – Withdrawal symptoms Shaking, nausea, anxiety, diarrhea, hallucinations, and disorientation – Blackout – Repeated and heavy drinking can result in liver damage, alcoholism, and brain damage  DEPRESSANTS Risk factors for alcoholism – Of 126 million people who drink alcohol, almost 19 million will develop alcoholism – Psychological risk factors Children of either one or both alcoholic parents can develop unusual, abnormal, or maladaptive psychological and emotional traits Childhood risk factors include being easily bored, engaging in risk-taking or sensation-seeking behaviors, and acting impulsive or overemotional when faced with stressful situations  DEPRESSANTS Risk factors for alcoholism – Genetic risk factors Refer to inherited biases or predispositions that increase the potential for alcoholism Genetic factors contribute 50 to 60% to the reasons a person becomes an alcoholic  DEPRESSANTS Barbiturates and tranquilizers – Barbiturates are depressant drugs that have a sedative effect Moderately high doses result in drowsiness, motor impairment, and poor judgment Larger doses can be fatal, especially when combined with alcohol – Tranquilizers are depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and stress Considered safer than barbiturates, but still carry risk for addiction and withdrawal Also quite dangerous when take with alcohol CULTURAL DIVERSITY: ALCOHOLISM RATES Definition and difference in rates – Alcoholism involves heavy drinking for a long period of time, cravings, and physical dependence – Alcoholics continue to use alcohol even when major substance-related problems have developed in their lives CULTURAL DIVERSITY: ALCOHOLISM RATES Genetic risk factors – Facial flushing – Occurs more in Asians and rarely in Caucasians Asians with the most facial flushing have lower rates of drinking an alcoholism Cultural risk factors – Rates of alcoholism are lowest among Taiwanese and highest among Koreans – The high rate among Koreans was primarily in men – Cultures like the U.S., Germany, and Canada had moderate rates, likely due to pressures of living in industrialized society CULTURAL DIVERSITY: ALCOHOLISM RATES Similarities across cultures – Alcoholism tends to appear in early to mid-twenties – Most alcoholics have 4 to 6 major life problems – Average duration of alcoholism is 8-10 years – Average pattern of drinking was nearly a quart per day – Men were consistently at greater risk than women for alcoholism – Depression more likely to be diagnosed in alcoholics than non-alcoholics – Mortality rate same for alcoholics across cultures  HALLUCINOGENS Definition – Hallucinogens are psychoactive drugs that can produce strange and unusual perceptual, sensory, and cognitive experiences, which the person sees or hears but knows aren’t occurring in reality LSD – D-lysergic acid diethylamide – Produces hallucinogenic experiences at very low doses – Visual hallucinations, perceptual distortions, increased sensory awareness, and intense psychological feelings  HALLUCINOGENS LSD – Nervous system resembles serotonin LSD binds to receptors that normally respond to serotonin; net effect is increased stimulation of these neurons receptors are mainly located on neurons in the cerebral cortex involved in receiving sensations, creating perceptions, thinking, and imagining  HALLUCINOGENS LSD – Dangers psychological effects partially depend on the setting and the person’s state of mind if a person is tense or anxious or in an unfamiliar setting, he or she may experience a bad trip severe trips may lead to psychotic reactions (especially paranoid feelings) that require hospitalization users may experience flashbacks (after the experience) occur for no apparent reason  HALLUCINOGENS Psilocybin – Magic mushrooms – Possession or use of psilocybin is illegal – Low doses produce pleasant and relaxed feelings – Medium doses produce perceptual distortions in time and space – High doses produce distortions in perceptions and body image and sometimes hallucinations  HALLUCINOGENS Psilocybin – Nervous system chemically related to LSD inhibits serotonin receptors hallucinatory effects last half as long as LSD – Dangers no physical harm to the brain or body potential for inducing psychotic states that may persist long after the experience is expected to end accidental poisonings are common from eating poisonous mushrooms  HALLUCINOGENS Mescaline – Peyote cactus – Contains about 30 psychoactive chemicals – Most potent is mescaline – Possession of mescaline is illegal for all except those who belong to the Native American Church – 2,000 times less potent than LSD – High doses: produce very clear and vivid visual hallucinations – Doesn’t impair the intellect or cloud consciousness  HALLUCINOGENS Mescaline – Nervous system reaches maximum concentration in the brain about 30 to 120 minutes after eating a button of peyote cactus increases the activity of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine activates the sympathetic nervous system produces physiological arousal: increased heart rate, temperature, and sometimes vomiting  HALLUCINOGENS Mescaline – Dangers can last six to eight hours users may experience headaches and vomiting  HALLUCINOGENS Designer drugs – Manufactured or synthetic drugs designed to resemble already existing illegal psychoactive drugs and produce or mimic their psychoactive effects – MDMA, ecstasy – Resemble both mescaline and amphetamine – Heightens sensation, giving a euphoric rush, raising body temperature, and creating feelings of warmth and empathy  HALLUCINOGENS Designer drugs – Nervous system cause large amounts of dopamine and serotonin to be released afterward: users may feel depressed and have attention memory deficits MDMA may cause brain damage  HALLUCINOGENS Designer drugs – Dangers recreational trips can last six hours effects can include euphoria, high energy, jaw clenching, teeth grinding, increased body temperature, and insomnia higher doses include panic, rapid heart beat, high body temperature, paranoia, and psychotic-like symptoms long-term use can create serious cognitive impairment  MARIJUANA Use and effects – Most widely used illegal drug – Medical marijuana can be effective in treating nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, appetite loss in AIDS patients, eye disease (glaucoma), muscle spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis, and some forms of pain – Gateway effect says that using marijuana leads young people to try harder drugs MARIJUANA  MARIJUANA – Psychoactive drug whose primary active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) – Found in leaves of the cannabis plant – THC is rapidly absorbed by the lungs (while smoking) – 5 to 10 minutes produces a hit that lasts for several hours – Depending on the user’s state of mind, marijuana can either heighten or distort pleasant or unpleasant experiences, moods, or feelings  MARIJUANA – Nervous system THC receptors are located throughout the brain, including the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, limbic system, cerebellum, and basal ganglia the brain itself makes a chemical similar to THC – anandamide – currently under study  MARIJUANA Dangers – Can cause temporary changes in cognitive functioning – Can temporarily decrease secretion of various hormones and effectiveness of the immune system – Respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma – High doses: may cause toxic psychoses, including delusions, paranoia, and feelings of terror  OPIATES Opium, morphine, heroin – Opiates are classified as narcotics – About 136,000 Americans use heroin – Opiates such as opium, morphine, and heroin produce three primary effects analgesia (pain reduction) opiate euphoria (state between waking and sleeping) constipation  OPIATES Opium, morphine, heroin – Nervous system brain has naturally occurring receptors for opiates produces feelings of euphoria and analgesia gastrointestinal tract has opiate receptors (constipation) brain also produces morphine-like chemicals called endorphins  OPIATES Opium, morphine, heroin – Dangers brain will produce less of its own endorphins relies on outside opiates person becomes addicted withdrawal symptoms, including hot and cold flashes, sweating, muscle tremors, and stomach cramps overdose results in depressed neural control for breathing and death from respiratory failure  OPIATES Opiates – Treatment Methadone injections used to treat heroin addiction in Great Britain (viewed as health problem) United States views heroin addiction as criminal problem, so limited medical treatment available Heroin addicts in United States have great difficulty kicking the habit, and most who do not do so by age 30 aren’t likely to do so Methadone treatments, and more recently buprenorphine, have shown more promise  OPIATES Video: Teen Drug Use  APPLICATION: TREATMENT FOR DRUG ABUSE Developing a problem – The case of Martin – Heavy drug use creates changes in the brain’s structure and function the increase sensitivity to stress – This heightened sensitivity further increases tendency to abuse a substance to alleviate anxiety Substance abuse – A maladaptive behavioral pattern of using a drug so frequently that significant problems develop (failing to meet major obligations, social, family, legal, etc.) – Problems must occur repeatedly within a 12-month period  APPLICATION: TREATMENT FOR DRUG ABUSE Four steps to treatment – Admit the problem – Enter a program – Get therapy – Stay sober