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Environment and Human Society - Exam Notes from "2.pdf" Here are detailed notes from "2.pdf," formatted similarly to "Evs Ch-2.pdf" to help you prepare for your exam: 1. Human Evolution and the Environment o Homo sapiens sapiens emerged over 2 million years ago. They possessed a...

Environment and Human Society - Exam Notes from "2.pdf" Here are detailed notes from "2.pdf," formatted similarly to "Evs Ch-2.pdf" to help you prepare for your exam: 1. Human Evolution and the Environment o Homo sapiens sapiens emerged over 2 million years ago. They possessed a large brain, enabling them to think and make judgments. Their ability to walk upright on two legs freed their hands for tool-making and other tasks. o Initially, survival depended on gathering food from the environment. However, human intelligence led to the exploitation of natural resources for purposes beyond sustenance. This included agriculture, tool development, and industrialization. Over time, this exploitation intensified, resulting in significant environmental damage and degradation, especially in recent centuries. 2. Natural Resources o Abiotic Resources: ▪ Land: Constitutes about 29% of the Earth's surface, encompassing diverse landforms such as mountains, deserts, forests, and grasslands. Humans utilize land for various purposes, including agriculture, construction (shelters, roads, etc.), and industrial activities. The increasing demand for land due to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization has led to the construction of dams, infrastructure projects, and factories, contributing to the rapid depletion of land resources. ▪ Water: Natural water sources include oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and ponds. A significant portion (80%) of Earth's freshwater is locked away in glaciers and ice caps, leaving only 20% available for use. Rainfall is the primary source of freshwater on land. Water is essential for all life forms. Humans use it for agriculture, industries, construction, aquaculture (cultivating fish and aquatic plants), and various domestic purposes. While water is naturally replenished, its overuse and wastage have led to increasing scarcity. ▪ Energy: The sun (solar radiation) is the ultimate energy source. Early humans relied on firewood, animal dung, and oil from seeds and fish for heating, cooking, and lighting. Fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum, are another significant energy source. Coal formed from ancient vegetation that decomposed and underwent transformations under immense pressure and heat over millions of years. It is used for various purposes, including cooking, powering locomotives, in industrial furnaces, and generating electricity. ▪ Petroleum and Natural Gas: These fossil fuels, like coal, originated from ancient organisms—petroleum from marine animals and natural gas from decomposed organic matter. Extracted from deep underground, these non- renewable resources are used for transportation (automobiles, airplanes), manufacturing plastics and fertilizers, and generating electricity. ▪ Metal Ores: These are naturally occurring rocks containing metals or metal compounds, such as aluminum, iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. These  metals have numerous applications: aluminum for utensils, vehicles, and aerospace components; iron and its alloys for machinery, infrastructure, and tools; copper for electrical wiring, electronics, and alloys like brass and bronze. The extraction and use of these finite resources are depleting them rapidly. o Biotic Resources (Living Resources): ▪ Plants: Serve as a primary food source, providing cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and spices. Humans cultivate plants for food, fibers (cotton, jute), ornamental purposes (flowers), and medicinal substances. They also provide industrial raw materials like rubber, resins, and wood. ▪ Animals: Provide food sources, including meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. Certain animals are used for transportation (horses, bullocks, camels), while others provide fibers like wool (sheep) and silk (silkworms). ▪ Microorganisms: Essential for producing antibiotics, fermentation processes (e.g., brewing), and decomposition of organic waste, contributing to nutrient recycling in ecosystems. 3. Interaction of Primitive Humans with the Environment o The history of humans on Earth spans over 2 million years. Archaeological evidence, including fossils and tools, provides insights into their lifestyles and interactions with the environment. o Hunter-Gatherer Societies: Primitive humans lived in forests near water bodies (rivers, lakes), relying on the environment for sustenance. Their diet consisted of seeds, roots, fruits, and small animals hunted with tools crafted from pebbles and stones. They were nomadic, moving from place to place in search of food and shelter, often seeking refuge in caves to avoid predators. o Tool Use: Primitive humans utilized their hands, freed by bipedalism, for various tasks. This included gathering plant-based food, creating tools from stones and pebbles, hunting animals, and processing their kills for consumption. They lived in groups of 20-30 individuals, sharing food, knowledge about edible plants, and hunting strategies. Their nomadic lifestyle involved covering vast distances and leaving behind traces of their presence through discarded tools and artifacts. 4. Development of Tools and Fire o Tool-Making Evolution: The need for food and protection drove the development of tools. Australopithecines, early human ancestors, created tools for defense against predators and hunting. Their pebble tools, found in Africa, represent early examples of tool technology. Over time, tool-making skills improved, with Homo erectus crafting more refined stone tools. This knowledge passed down to Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. o Advanced Tools: Homo erectus used flint and other hard stones to create hand axes with sharp edges, achieved through meticulous chipping and shaping. These tools were superior to earlier pebble tools, enabling them to dig for roots, process plants, and butcher animals efficiently. Wooden spears and bone daggers enhanced their  hunting capabilities, allowing them to target larger prey like elephants and rhinoceroses. Neanderthals further advanced tool-making techniques, producing a variety of implements, including knives, pins, needles, and harpoons, demonstrating increasing skill and specialization. They became proficient hunters, capable of bringing down large game (mammoths, rhinoceroses, bison). The Neolithic or New Stone Age witnessed the creation of polished and refined stone tools, though their significance declined as agriculture emerged. o Discovery and Use of Fire: Homo erectus is credited with discovering fire over 200,000 years ago. This discovery profoundly impacted their lifestyle. Fire provided warmth, enabled cooking (tenderizing meat and making it easier to digest), offered protection from predators, and facilitated the colonization of colder regions. It marked a significant step in human cultural evolution and increased their ability to utilize natural resources. 5. Beginning of Settled Life o The nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle gradually gave way to settled living. Archaeological evidence suggests that early humans constructed temporary oval- shaped huts, often covered with plant material, as they began to stay in one place for longer durations. o Emergence of Agriculture: The transition to agriculture, around 12,000 years ago, was a pivotal moment. Humans observed that seeds discarded near their dwellings would sprout, leading to the realization that they could cultivate their own food. This shift towards agriculture provided a more stable and predictable food supply, leading to the formation of the first agricultural communities. As agricultural practices improved, food surpluses grew, supporting larger populations and enabling the development of specialized roles within these societies. o Domestication of Animals: The dog was likely the first domesticated animal. Domestication extended to other animals, including goats, sheep, cattle, and various birds, providing additional food sources (meat, milk, eggs) and labor for agriculture and transportation. Animals used for labor, such as plowing fields and transportation, are known as "draught animals." 6. Invention of the Wheel o The invention of the wheel, estimated to be around 5,000 years ago in regions like Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, revolutionized transportation. Early wheels were likely simple slices of logs. These evolved into more sophisticated designs, including wheels with spokes, initially crafted from wood and later from metal, offering greater strength and efficiency. The wheel's impact extended beyond transportation, finding use in pottery (the potter's wheel) to shape clay. 7. Industrialization o Early Industrial Activities: A stable food supply and population growth facilitated the development of early industries. Mining for flint, used to create tools, was one of the earliest forms of industrial activity. Miners used tools like deer antlers and shovels made from animal bones, working by the light of lamps fueled by animal fat. These  early industries, involving tool production and construction, required significant labor and ingenuity. o Discovery of Metals: The discovery and utilization of metals like copper, bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), and iron marked a turning point in human history, leading to the transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age and, later, the Iron Age. The ability to extract and work with metals led to the creation of stronger and more durable tools, weapons, and other implements. 8. Factors Leading to Industrialization o Technological Advancements: The development of metal tools and the invention of the wheel were crucial technological drivers of early industrialization. These advancements improved efficiency in agriculture, transportation, and manufacturing. o Economic Development: The surplus food production facilitated by agriculture allowed for trade and specialization of labor. This led to the growth of economies and the emergence of craftspeople and merchants. o Mining: The need for raw materials, starting with flint and later expanding to metal ores, spurred the growth of the mining industry. Mining provided the essential resources for toolmaking and construction. o Agriculture: Agriculture played a foundational role, providing the food surplus necessary for population growth and the development of specialized labor, ultimately driving industrial development. 9. Exploitation of Natural Resources o From their earliest days, humans have relied on forests for food, shelter, and materials. However, as populations grew and civilizations advanced, human activities, particularly deforestation for agriculture and timber, began to significantly impact forest ecosystems. o The discovery of fire increased the demand for wood as fuel, further contributing to deforestation. Mining activities, initially for flint and later for metal ores, intensified the extraction of natural resources from the Earth. While early human impact was relatively limited, the industrial revolution, starting around the 18th century, marked a period of unprecedented resource exploitation. o Environmental Consequences: The rapid expansion of industrialization and the accompanying surge in population have led to the overexploitation of natural resources, including forests, minerals, water, and fossil fuels. This has resulted in widespread deforestation, habitat destruction, and the decline of various plant and animal species. Pollution from industrial activities has contaminated air, water, and land, posing serious threats to human health and the environment. The once- balanced relationship between humans and nature has become increasingly strained, and the consequences of this ecological imbalance are becoming increasingly apparent. Key Concepts for Your Exam: 1. Stages of Human Evolution: Remember the key stages: Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and Homo sapiens sapiens. 2. Natural Resources: Understand the different categories (abiotic and biotic) and the specific examples provided in the text, along with their uses and the consequences of their exploitation. 3. Early Human Societies: Be familiar with the characteristics of hunter-gatherer and early agricultural societies, their tools, and their interactions with the environment. 4. Significant Inventions: The discovery of fire and the invention of the wheel were pivotal moments in human history—understand their impact on human development and the environment. 5. Industrialization: Understand the factors that contributed to industrialization (agriculture, technology, economic development) and its profound impact on human societies and the environment. 6. Environmental Impact: Industrialization and population growth have intensified the exploitation of natural resources, leading to deforestation, pollution, habitat loss, and other environmental problems. Be prepared to discuss these consequences.