Motivation Theories (PDF)

Motivation Emmanuel Arockiam, Ph.D.  What is Motivation? Motivation is a reason or set of reasons for engaging in a particular behavior. The reasons may include basic needs (e.g., food, water, shelter) or an object, goal, state of being or ideal that is desirable (may or may not...

Motivation Emmanuel Arockiam, Ph.D.  What is Motivation? Motivation is a reason or set of reasons for engaging in a particular behavior. The reasons may include basic needs (e.g., food, water, shelter) or an object, goal, state of being or ideal that is desirable (may or may not be +ve). Less apparent reasons may be altruism or morality. Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior [Geen (1995)]  Motivational Concepts Reward and Reinforcement tangible or intangible, after the occurrence of an action with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. If the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.  Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic (satisfaction) or extrinsic (praise, money). Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity, without obvious external incentives, such as a hobby. Intrinsic may be based on enjoyment or a sense of obligation. Students may be said to be intrinsically motivated if they: Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in), [Weiner’s Attribution theory] Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by dumb luck) [Bandura’s Self-efficacy theory] Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades. [Goal- orientation or locus of control theories]  Coercion Most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where the avoidance of pain or other negative consequences has an immediate effect. Extreme use of coercion is considered slavery. Coercion - morally reprehensible in many philosophies but practiced on prisoners. Successful coercion sometimes can take priority over other types of motivation.  Self-control a subset of Emotional Intelligence Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. Originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behaviour. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies, e.g., hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; More subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.  Motivational Theories Drive Reduction Theory Need Achievement Theory Social Cognitive Motivation Theory Social Learning Theory  Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull) Derives from the regulatory approach to behavior Emphasizes the general energization of behavior Concept of homeostasis is central to this - an organism is internally aroused whenever there is a state of imbalance and will do whatever is necessary to restore balance.  Drive Reduction Theory (cont.) Additional key concepts: 1. Need – excess/deficiency of some product related to survival; needs frequently lead to activity which restores balance 2. Drive – not directly observed; provides the persistent stimulus to behavior; goads the organism to activity 3. Goal – some commodity that will reduce drive that initiated the activity  Drive Reduction Theory (cont.) Systematic attempt to deal with the ? of “how drive energizes behavior and why one behavior rather than another behavior occurs?” Progressive Sequence: - Need leads to drive - Drive energizes activity - Achievement of the Goal reduces drive and goal-oriented activity  Drive Reduction Theory (cont.) Hull distinguished between 1. Performance 2. Variables that determine performance A. Habit Strength – strength of the association between a given stimulus & response B. Drive – which activates habit into performance - Drive does not direct, guide, steer or select responses, rather drive energizes all learned responses - The response which has the strongest association (HABIT STRENGTH) to the stimuli, in a given situation would be the response that is most likely to occur  Drive Reduction Theory (cont.) Theoretical Formula: - Drive multiplies habit to produce the excitatory potential for a particular response Excitatory Potential = Habit x Drive (E = H x D) E, H, D are all intervening variables with different antecedent conditions. The strength of H is a function of the # of learning trials; increasing w/ the # of S-R associations.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Acquired Needs Theory - we seek power, achievement or affiliation Also known as Three-Need Theory or Learned Need Theory – Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a significant chance of failure. – Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. They seek approval rather than recognition. – Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement and compliance. Challenge achievers with stretching goals. Offer affiliation-seekers safety and approval. Beware of personal power-seekers trying to turn the tables on you or use other Machiavellian methods. Make sure you have sufficient power of your own, or show how you can help them achieve more power.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Affect Perseverance - Preference persists after disconfirmation It occurs where an emotional preference continues, even after the thoughts that gave rise to the original emotion are invalidated. Feelings are often independent of facts and evidence, and once initiated tend to take on a life of their own. Almost by definition, they are not rational. Affect Perseverance is similar to Belief Perseverance. E.g., A woman falls in love with a man because he is kind to her. When he becomes abusive, her affection remains.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Attitude-Behavior Consistency – Factors that align attitude and behavior Our attitudes (predispositions to behavior) and actual behaviors are more likely to align if the following factors are true:  Our attitude and behavior are both constrained to very specific circumstances.  There have been many opportunities to express attitude through behavior.  We have a history of attitude-behavior consistency.  The attitudes are based on personal experience, rather than being copied from others.  The attitudes are proven by past experience.  There is no social desirability bias, where the presence of others will lead us into uncharacteristic behavior.  We are low in self-monitoring, so we do not distract  The attitude is strongly held and is around core beliefs.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Attribution Theory – Our attributions - significantly driven by our emotional and motivational drives. Blaming other people and avoiding personal recrimination: self-serving attributions. We may make attributions to defend us against what we perceive as attacks. We will point to injustice in an unfair world. We will even tend to blame victims for their fate as we seek to distance ourselves from thoughts of suffering the same plight. In practice, we often tend to go through a two-step process, starting with an automatic internal attribution, followed by a slower consideration of whether an external attribution is more appropriate. As with Automatic Believing, if we are hurrying or are distracted, we may not get to this second step. This makes internal attribution more likely than external attribution.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Cognitive Dissonance – Non-alignment is uncomfortable Feeling of uncomfortable tension from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at the same time. – Dissonance increases with: The importance of the subject to us. How strongly the dissonant thoughts conflict. Our inability to rationalize and explain away the conflict.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Cognitive dissonance is a very powerful motivator to change one or other of the conflicting belief or action. The discomfort often feels like a tension between the two opposing thoughts. To release the tension we can take one of three actions: – Change our behavior. – Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting cognition. – Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions. Most powerful when it is about our self-image. Feelings of foolishness, immorality and so on (including internal projections during decision-making) are dissonance in action. It appears in virtually all evaluations and decisions. It increases with the importance and impact of the decision, along with the difficulty of reversing it. Discomfort about making the wrong choice of car is bigger than when choosing a lamp.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Cognitive Dissonance appears in virtually all evaluations and decisions. It increases with the importance and impact of the decision, along with the difficulty of reversing it. Discomfort about making the wrong choice of car is bigger than when choosing a lamp. E.g., Smokers find all kinds of reasons to explain away their unhealthy habit. The alternative is to feel a great deal of dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is central to many forms of persuasion to change beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors. The tension can be injected suddenly or allowed to build up over time. People can be moved in many small jumps or one large one.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Cognitive Evaluation Theory - we select tasks based on how doable they are In evaluating a task, we see it in terms of how well it meets our needs to feel competent and in control. If we think we will be able to complete the task, we will be intrinsically motivated to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation. Cognitive Evaluation is occasionally also called Self-Perception Theory, although this confuses it with Bem's Self-Perception Theory. When you ask someone to do something, and if you want that person to be motivated, then ensure that it falls within that person’s current level of competency.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Consistency Theory - we seek the comfort of internal alignment When our inner systems (beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one another and when these are also supported by external evidence, then we have a comfortable state of affairs. We also have a strong need to believe we are being consistent with social norms. When there is conflict between behaviors that are consistent with inner systems and behaviors that are consistent with social norms, the potential threat of social exclusion often sways us towards the latter, even though it may cause significant inner dissonance. Ways we achieve consistency between conflicting items include: – Denial or ignoring : 'I didn't see it happen.' – Rationalization and excuses : 'It was going to fall anyway.' – Separation of items :'I don't use my car enough to make a difference.' – Transcendence : 'Nobody is perfect.' – Changing item : 'I'll be more careful next time.' – Persuasion : 'I'm good, really, aren't I?'  Motivation Theories (cont.) Control Theory - we seek to control the world around us Our deep need for control that itself, paradoxically, controls much of our lives. The endless effort to control can lead us to be miserable as we fail in this impossible task of trying to control everything and everyone around us. The alternative is to see the world as a series of choices, which is why Glasser later renamed Control Theory as Choice Theory.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Disconfirmation Bias - Agreeing with what supports beliefs and vice versa. When people are faced with evidence for and against their beliefs, they will be more likely to accept the evidence that supports their beliefs with little scrutiny yet criticize and reject that which disconfirms their beliefs. Generally, we will avoid or discount evidence that might show us to be wrong. Lord, Ross and Lepper had 24 each of pro- and anti- death penalty students evaluate faked studies on capital punishment, some of which supported the death penalty and some which did not. Students concluded that the studies that supported their views were superior to those that did not.  Motivation Theories (cont.) ERG Theory: We seek to fulfill needs of existence, relatedness and growth Clayton Alderfer extended and simplified Maslow’s Hierarchy into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (hence 'ERG'). Unlike Maslow, he did not see these as being a hierarchy, but being more of a continuum. At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable future. Feeling safe and physically comfortable… (Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs). At the next level, we consider our social needs. When we are related, we feel a sense of identity and position within our immediate society. (Maslow's Love/belonging and Esteem needs) At the highest level, we seek to grow, be creative for ourselves and for our environment. When we are successfully growing, we feel a sense of wholeness, achievement and fulfillment. (Maslow’s self- actualization and transcendence)  Motivation Theories (cont.) Expectancy Theory - We are motivated by desirable things we expect we can achieve As we constantly are predicting likely futures, we create expectations about future events. If things seem reasonably likely and attractive, we know how to get there and we believe we can 'make the difference' then this will motivate us to act to make this future come true. Motivation is thus a combination of: – Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?) – Instrumentality: The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?) – Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?) In case of an unpleasant outcome, the motivation is one of avoidance. Expectancy Theory is also called Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Extrinsic Motivation - external: tangible rewards – Extrinsic motivation drives me to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it. – You can offer positive motivations such as rewards and other bribery or you can use negative motivation such as threats and blackmail. Either way, extrinsic motivation is crude, easy and often effective. However it focuses people on the reward and not the action.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Intrinsic Motivation - internal: value-based rewards Intrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation drives me to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good or right thing to do. There is a paradox of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is far stronger a motivator than extrinsic motivation, yet external motivation can easily act to displace intrinsic motivation  Motivation Theories (cont.) Goal-setting Theory - different types of goals motivate us differently In order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are: – Clear (not vague) and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do. – Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored. – Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail. If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Directional and accuracy goals Depending on the type of goal we have, we will go about achieving it differently. A directional goal – motivates us to arrive at a particular conclusion. We will narrow our thinking, selecting beliefs, etc. that support the conclusion. The lack of deliberation also tends to make us more optimistic about achieving the goal. An accuracy goal – motivates us to arrive at the most accurate possible conclusion. This occurs when the cost of being inaccurate is high. People invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and stop thinking about it--we continue to search for improvements. Both methods work by influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Investment Model - Our commitment depends on what we have invested. Our commitment to a relationship depends on how satisfied we are about: – Rewards and costs and what we see as a fair balance. – A comparison with potential alternative relationships – How much we have already invested in the relationship. Investments can be financial (house), temporal (time spent together) or emotional (welfare of the children). Investments can thus has a ‘sunk cost’ effect, where a person stays in a relationship simply because they have already invested significantly in it. e.g., Cults often have a sequence of 'inner circles', each of which requires increasing investment. To get through these doors cult members have to donate their worldly wealth, go through bizarre rituals, learn lengthy texts, and so on.  Motivation Theories (cont.) Opponent-Process Theory: Opposite emotions interact Reactance Theory – Discomfort when our freedom is threatened Self-discrepancy Theory – We need beliefs to be consistent Side-bet Theory – allied side-bets increase commitment to a main bet