Visual Perception PDF

VISUAL PERCEPTION Presented by: Rovie, Gwen, Ken, Ian, Moises  LEARNING OBJECTIVES UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF LEARN THE CONCEPTS AND VISUAL PERCEPTION APPROACHES OF PERCEPTION SENSATION TO REPRESENTATION PERCEPTION THE SET OF PROCESSES BY WHICH WE RECOGNIZE, ORGANIZE, AND MAKE...

VISUAL PERCEPTION Presented by: Rovie, Gwen, Ken, Ian, Moises  LEARNING OBJECTIVES UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF LEARN THE CONCEPTS AND VISUAL PERCEPTION APPROACHES OF PERCEPTION SENSATION TO REPRESENTATION PERCEPTION THE SET OF PROCESSES BY WHICH WE RECOGNIZE, ORGANIZE, AND MAKE SENSE OF THE SENSATIONS WE RECEIVE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI KNOWLEDGE IS KEY TO PERCEPTION THE WORLD DOES NOT APPEAR TO US EXACTLY AS IT DOES TO OUR EYES. BRAIN INTERPRET THE STIMULI THAT STRIKE OUR RETINA AND ENTER OUR EYES.  THE EXISTENCE OF PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS WHAT WE SENSE (IN OUR SENSORY ORGANS) IS NOT NECESSARILY WHAT WE PERCEIVE (IN OUR MINDS) (PETERSON, 1999)  JAMES J. GIBSON (1904 - 1979) AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST INTRODUCED BASIC CONCEPTS IN PERCEPTION CONCEPTS 1. DISTAL OBJECT 2. INFORMATIONAL MEDIUM 3. PROXIMAL STIMULATION 4. PERCEPTUAL OBJECT DISTAL OBJECT THE OBJECT IN THE EXTERNAL WORLD (STIMULUS) AN EXAMPLE IS A FACE INFORMATIONAL MEDIUM THE MEANS BY WHICH DATA IS CONVEYED FROM THE OBJECT TO THE PERCEIVER (RECOGNITION) EXAMPLES ARE SOUND WAVES, LIGHT WAVES, ETC.. PROXIMAL STIMULATION THE PROCESS OF ENERGY ABSORPTION ON THE OBSERVER'S SENSORY RECEPTORS (PROCESSING) COULD BE LIGHT ABSORPTION IN THE ROD AND CONE CELLS OF THE RETINA PERCEPTUAL OBJECT THE CREATED IMAGE IN YOU THAT REFLECTS THE PROPERTIES OF THE DISTAL OBJECT. (RESULT) WHAT YOU MAKE OF WHAT YOU SEE OR SENSE (YOUR INTERPRETATION). THE GANZFELD EFFECT THE MECHANISM OF SENSORY ADAPTATION DULLING EFFECT OF SENSORY IN THE RECEPTOR(THE RETINA OF THE EYE) EYES' CONSTANT TINY RAPID MOVEMENTS PREVENT THE DULLING EFFECT  WHAT HAPPEN WHEN OUR VISUAL RECEPTOR IS EXPOSED TO NON-CHANGING STIMULI? TAPE HALF OF PING- PONG BALL TO EACH EYE LISTEN TO WHITE NOISE WAIT FOR FOR A FEW MINUTES  SOME CLAIM TO HEAR THE VOICE OF A DECEASED RELATIVE OR SEE HORSES GALLOPING THROUGH BRAIN IS ADDICTED TO SENSATION, SO WHEN THERE ISN'T MUCH TO SENSE, IT ENDS UP CREATING ITS OWN. OUR VISUAL SYSTEM CORNEA - EYE PROTECTION IRIS - LIGHT MODULATION PUPIL - LIGHT PATHWAY LENS - TRANSMITS/FOCUSES LIGHT TO RETINA RETINA - CONVERT LIGHT TO NUERO SIGNAL THE WHAT/WHERE HYPOTHESIS DORSAL/WHERE PATHWAY - LOCATION AND MOTION INFORMATION OF THE STIMULUS VENTRAL/WHAT PATHWAY - COLOR, SHAPE, IDENTITY INFORMATION OF THE STIMULUS APPROACHES TO PERCEPTION HOW DO WE MAKE SENSE OF WHAT WE SEE? BOTTOM-UP VS TOP-DOWN THEORY BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING -DIRECT PERCEPTION -TEMPLATE THEORIES -FEATURE MATCHING THEORIES -RECOGNITION-BY-COMPONENTS THEORY DIRECT PERCEPTION -THE INFORMATION IN OUR SENSORY RECEPTORS IS ALL WE NEED -ALSO CALLED AS ECOLOGICAL PERCEPTION -PERCEPTION IS INNATE -SENSATION AND PERCEPTION ARE THE SAME  EXAMPLE: USE TEXTURE GRADIENTS AS CUES FOR DEPTH AND DISTANCE MIRROR NEURONS STARTS FIRING 30-100 MS AFTER A VISUAL STIMULUS TEMPLATE THEORIES -HIGHLY DETAILED MODEL FOR PATTERNS WE POTENTIALLY MIGHT RECOGNIZE -COMPARE TO TEMPLATE UNTIL A MATCH IS FOUND FEATURE MATCHING THEORY RECOGNIZD OBJECTS BY FEATURES -DETECT ELEMENTS AND ASSEMBLE THEM UNTO MORE COMPLEX FORM -BRAIN CELLS RESPONDS TO SPECIFIC FEATURE(LINES AND ANGLES) OLIVER SELFRIDGE PANDEMONIUM MODEL FOUR KINDS OF DEMONS -IMAGE DEMONS -FEATURE DEMONS -COGNITIVE DEMONS -DECISION DEMONS PHYSIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR FEATURES HUBEL AND WEISEL (1979) -SIMPLE CELLS-BARS/EDGES -COMPLEX CELLS-BARS/EDGES DETECT BARS OF PARTICULAR ORIENTATION -HYPERCOMPLEX CELLS-PARTICULAR COLONS(SIMPLE AND COMPLEX CELLS) BARS OR EDGES OF PARTICULAR LENGHT OR MOVING IN A PARTICULAR DIRECTION RECOGNITION-BY-COMPONENTS THEORY SEEING WITH THE HELP OF GEONS IRVING BIEDERMAN -RECOGNIZE THE OBJECT BY OBSERVING THE EDGES AND THEN DECOMPOSING THE OBJECTS INTO GEONS TOP-DOWN PROCESSING (CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH) PERCEPTION IS NOT AUTOMATIC FROM RAW STIMULI -MAKING INFERENCES -GUESSING FROM EXPERIENCE WE PERCEPT BASED ON 3 THINGS: -WHAT WE SENSE -WHAT WE KNOW -WHAT WE WE CAN INFER  CONTEXT EFFECT -INFLUENCES OF THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT ON PERCEPTION. -HELPS US TO BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE LETTERS IN MANY DIFFERENT STYLES -HELPS US TO BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE LETTERS IN MANY DIFFERENT STYLES CONFIGURAL-SUPERIORITY EFFECT -OBJECTS PRESENTED IN CONTEXT ARE EASIER TO RECOGNIZE THAN OBJECTS PRESENTED ALONE -OBJECT SUPERIORITY EFFECT -WORD SUPERIORITY EFFECT -PICTURE SUPERIORITY EFFECT -HALO EFFECT -FRAMING EFFECT PERCEPTIONS OF OBJECTS AND FORM  VIEWER-CENTERED VS. OBJECT-CENTERED PERCEPTION VIEWER-CENTERED PERCEPTION THE CONCEPT OF VIEWER-CENTERED REPRESENTATION PROPOSES THAT WE RECALL OBJECTS BY HOW THEY APPEAR TO US FROM VARIOUS ANGLES, RATHER THAN THEIR ACTUAL SHAPE. OBJECT-CENTERED PERCEPTION THE IDEA OF OBJECT-CENTERED REPRESENTATION MEANS THAT WE REMEMBER THE TRUE SHAPE OF AN OBJECT, NO MATTER HOW IT LOOKS FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES. DEPTH CUES IN PHOTOGRAPHY IT IS A TECHNIQUE THAT HELPS SHOW HOW FAR AWAY FROM THE CAMERA, GIVING A SENSE OF DEPTH AND THREE-DIMENSIONALITY OR ILLUSION TO A FLAT IMAGE. LANDMARK-CENTERED INFORMATION IS DESCRIBED BASED ON HOW IT RELATES TO A WELL-KNOWN OR IMPORTANT REFERENCE POINT. THE PERCEPTION OF GROUPS— GESTALT LAW  OUR ABILITY TO SEE THINGS MAKES IT EASIER FOR US TO MAKE SENSE OF AND ARRANGE THE COMPLICATED AND CONFUSING INFORMATION WE ENCOUNTER. IN ORDER TO MAKE IT EASIER TO PROCESS AND RECOGNIZE WHICH OBJECTS GO TOGETHER OR BELONG IN THE SAME CATEGORY, WE ACHIEVE THIS BY GROUPING RELATED ITEMS TOGETHER. STATED DIFFERENTLY, WE CATEGORIZE WHAT WE OBSERVE INTO SEPARATE AND ORGANIZED GROUPS. LAW OF PRÄGNANZ ACCORDING TO THIS LAW WE NATURALLY TRY TO MAKE SENSE OF WHAT WE SEE BY ORGANIZING IT INTO A SIMPLE AND CLEAR SHAPE OR PATTERN. FIGURE GROUND EFFECT THE FIGURE-GROUND EFFECT IS HOW WE SEPARATE OBJECTS (FIGURES) FROM THEIR BACKGROUND (GROUND) IN WHAT WE SEE. EBBINGHAUS ILLUSION  AN EXPERIMENT BY PARRON AND FAGOT (2007) SHOWED THAT ONLY HUMANS MISJUDGED THE SIZE OF THE CENTRAL CIRCLE IN THE EBBINGHAUS ILLUSION (FIGURE 3.20), WHEREAS BABOONS DID NOT. RECOGNIZING PATTERNS AND FACES TWO DIFFERENT PATTERN RECOGNITION SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO MARTHA FARAH, PEOPLE HAVE TWO WAYS OF IDENTIFYING PATTERNS (FARAH, FARAH ET AL. (1998); 1992, 1995) FEATURE ANALYSIS SYSTEM -IS A WAY OF RECOGNIZING OBJECTS BY FOCUSING ON THEIR INDIVIDUAL PARTS. CONFIGURATIONAL SYSTEM -IS A WAY OF RECOGNIZING OBJECTS BY FOCUSING ON THEIR OVERALL SHAPE OR ARRANGEMENT, RATHER THAN ON INDIVIDUAL PARTS.  FACE RECOGNITION MAINLY HAPPENS IN A BRAIN AREA CALLED THE FUSIFORM GYRUS, LOCATED IN THE TEMPORAL LOBE.  THE DATA SHOWED THAT PEOPLE WERE GENERALLY BETTER AT RECOGNIZING HOUSES, WHETHER THEY WERE SHOWN IN PARTS OR AS A WHOLE. HOWEVER, PEOPLE FOUND IT HARDER TO RECOGNIZE PARTS OF FACES COMPARED TO RECOGNIZING WHOLE FACES. NORMAL AND DISTORTED FACES. IN THE LAB OF MARVIN CHUN MARVIN CHUN IS A COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENTIST KNOWN FOR HIS RESEARCH IN VISUAL PERCEPTION, ATTENTION, AND THE NEURAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THESE PROCESSES. IN THE LAB OF MARVIN CHUN APOLLO ROBINS AKA GENTLEMAN THIEF IS A TALENTED MAGICIAN KNOWN FOR HIS PICKPOCKETING SKILLS. HE IS FAMOUS FOR USING QUICK HAND MOVEMENTS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TRICKS TO TAKE ITEMS FROM PEOPLE WITHOUT THEM REALIZING IT. IN A LAB TASK, PEOPLE LOOK FOR TWO LETTERS IN A FAST-MOVING STREAM OF NUMBERS, APPEARING AT A RATE OF 10 ITEMS PER SECOND. THEY CAN USUALLY SPOT THE FIRST LETTER ABOUT 90% OF THE TIME. BUT IF THE SECOND LETTER SHOWS UP JUST 200-300 MILLISECONDS AFTER THE FIRST ONE, THEY OFTEN MISS IT—UP TO 70% OF THE TIME. ATTENTIONAL BLINK IS A SHORT PERIOD DURING WHICH OUR ATTENTION IS TEMPORARILY OVERWHELMED OR "BLINKS" AFTER WE’VE FOCUSED ON SOMETHING. THE NEUROSCIENCE OF RECOGNIZING FACES AND PATTERNS ACCORDING TO STUDIES BY BOLTE ET AL. (2006) AND HALL, SZECHTMAN, & NAHMIAS (2003), PEOPLE WITH AUTISM CAN LEARN TO IDENTIFY EMOTIONS WITH EFFORT, BUT THIS TRAINING DOESN’T MAKE RECOGNIZING EMOTIONS AUTOMATIC OR INCREASE ACTIVITY IN THE FUSIFORM GYRUS. EXPERT-INDIVIDUATION HYPOTHESIS IT SUGGESTS THAT THE FUSIFORM GYRUS GETS ACTIVATED WHEN WE LOOK AT THINGS WE ARE HIGHLY SKILLED AT RECOGNIZING. ENVIRONMENT THAT HELPS YOU SEE How do we perceive the world around us? PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY Occurs when our perception of an object remains the same even when our proximal sensation of the distal object changes (Gillam, 2000). Perceptual system has ways to adjust what we perceive so that it stays consistent. FOUR TYPES OF PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY: SIZE CONSTANCY, SHAPE CONSTANCY, COLOR CONSTANCY, BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY SIZE CONSTANCY SIZE CONSTANCY When we perceive an object as being the same size, even if the size of the image on our retina changes as the object moves closer or farther away. Sometimes, our sensory and perceptual systems can be tricked by the information that usually helps us maintain size constancy, it is the illusions. The Müller-Lyer Illusion The Müller-Lyer Illusion Right posterior parietal cortex helps us imagine and mentally manipulate images. Right temporo-occipital cortex processes visual information. SHAPE CONSTANCY SHAPE CONSTANCY The tendency for a familiar object's shape to be perceived as constant when observed from various angles, positions and orientations. EXAMPLE OF SHAPE CONSTANCY EXTRASTRIATE CORTEX integrates and refines the basic visual information received from the primary visual cortex to create a more detailed and meaningful visual experience. EXTRASTRIATE CORTEX COLOR CONSTANCY  COLOR CONSTANCY is a feature of the human visual system that allows us to perceive the color of objects as consistent, even under varying lighting conditions. DEPTH PERCEPTION Gibson and Walks Cliff Experiment  DEPTH Depth is the distance from a surface, usually using your own body as a reference surface when speaking in terms of depth perception and how they fit into a three-dimensional space. How do we manage to perceive 3-D space when the proximal stimuli on our retinas comprise only a 2-D projection of what we see? DEPTH CUES  DEPTH CUES gives us signals or clues that help our brain figure out how far away things are and how they relate to each other in space. These cues help us perceive the world in three dimensions, even though the images on our retinas are two-dimensional.  TWO MAIN TYPES OF DEPTH CUES: MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES & BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES “Mono” means “one”. The Latin word "oculus," which means "eye." These cues work with just one eye and can be seen in two-dimensional images like photos or paintings. EXAMPLES OF MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES EXAMPLES OF MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES EXAMPLES OF MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES It comes from the Latin word "bis," meaning "twice" and "oculus," meaning "eye." Require the use of both eyes to work together in order to provide depth and distance related information to the brain. Convergence and Retinal Disparity use binocular depth cues TWO INFORMATIONS OF BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES According to Rychkova & Ninio, 2009, For about 8% of people with misaligned eyes (strabismus), depth perception can still happen with just one eye. These people might use the peripheral retina to maintain depth perception. If the fovea remains active, they might be able to combine double images into one 3D image. The brain helps with this by adjusting for the misalignment, which lets them see depth.  NEUROSCIENCE OF DEPTH PERCEPTION (Jiang et al., 2008; Orban et al., 2003) First, the primary visual cortex handles the basic visual information. Moving 3-D shapes are then analyzed in the human motion complex (hMT), which deals with how things move. After that, the V5 region of the visual cortex and the medial parietal cortex work on understanding depth and shape. The lateral occipital cortex then helps figure out the shape from the moving object. This shape is compared with a mental representation stored in the ventral occipital and ventral temporal areas of the cortex. Finally, the parietal cortex and primary visual cortex are involved, with the parietal cortex helping guide how we interpret and process the visual information from the start. DEFICITS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS LEARN A GREAT DEAL ABOUT NORMAL PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES BY STUDYING PERCEPTION IN NORMAL PARTICIPANTS.  HOWEVER, WE ALSO OFTEN GAIN UNDERSTANDING OF PERCEPTION BY STUDYING PEOPLE WHOSE PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES DIFFER FROM THE NORM  HOWEVER, WE ALSO OFTEN GAIN UNDERSTANDING OF PERCEPTION BY STUDYING PEOPLE WHOSE PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES DIFFER FROM THE NORM AGNOSIAS  AGNOSIAS OFTEN ARE CAUSED BY DAMAGE TO THE BORDER OF THE TEMPORAL AND OCCIPITAL LOBES OR RESTRICTED OXYGEN FLOW TO AREAS OF THE BRAIN, SOMETIMES AS A RESULT OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY.  PEOPLE WITH AGNOSIA HAVE NORMAL SENSATIONS OF WHAT IS IN FRONT OF THEM. THEY CAN PERCEIVE THE COLORS AND SHAPES OF OBJECTS AND PERSONS BUT THEY CANNOT RECOGNIZE WHAT THE OBJECTS ARE—THEY HAVE TROUBLE WITH THE “WHAT” PATHWAY. THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF AGNOSIAS. NOT ALL OF THEM ARE VISUAL. FEW SPECIFIC INABILITIES TO SEE FORMS AND PATTERNS IN SPACE: VISUAL-OBJECT AGNOSIA SIMULTAGNOSIA PROSOPAGNOSIA  VISUAL-OBJECT AGNOSIA CAN SEE ALL PARTS OF THE VISUAL FIELD, BUT THE OBJECTS THEY SEE DO NOT MEAN ANYTHING TO THEM  SIMULTAGNOSIA DISTURBANCE IN THE TEMPORAL REGION OF THE CORTEX CAN LEAD TO SIMULTAGNOSIA.  PROSOPAGNOSIA RESULTS IN A SEVERELY IMPAIRED ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE HUMAN FACES  FUNCTIONING OF THE RIGHT- HEMISPHERE FUSIFORM GYRUS IS STRONGLY IMPLICATED IN PROSOPAGNOSIA. IN PARTICULAR, THE DISORDER IS ASSOCIATED WITH DAMAGE TO THE RIGHT TEMPORAL LOBE OF THE BRAIN.  A PERSON WITH PROSOPAGNOSIA MIGHT NOT RECOGNIZE HER OR HIS OWN FACE IN THE MIRROR. ATAXIA  OPTIC ATAXIA / ATAXIA A DIFFERENT KIND OF PERCEPTUAL DEFICIT IS ASSOCIATED WITH DAMAGE TO THE “HOW” PATHWAY.  PEOPLE WITH THIS DEFICIT HAVE TROUBLE REACHING FOR THINGS.  AN IMPAIRMENT IN THE ABILITY TO USE THE VISUAL SYSTEM TO GUIDE MOVEMENT  RESULTS FROM A PROCESSING FAILURE IN THE POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX, WHERE SENSORIMOTOR INFORMATION IS PROCESSED.  PEOPLE WITH ATAXIA CAN IMPROVE THEIR MOVEMENTS TOWARD A VISIBLE AIM WHEN THEY HOLD OFF WITH THEIR MOVEMENTS FOR A FEW SECONDS ANOMALIES IN COLOR PERCEPTION  COLOR PERCEPTION DEFICITS ARE MUCH MORE COMMON IN MEN THAN IN WOMEN, AND THEY ARE GENETICALLY LINKED. HOWEVER, THEY CAN ALSO RESULT FROM LESIONS TO THE VENTRO- MEDIAL OCCIPITAL AND TEMPORAL LOBES. THERE ARE SEVERAL KINDS OF COLOR DEFICIENCY, WHICH ARE SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS KINDS OF “COLOR BLINDNESS.” SOME KINDS OF DEFICIENCIES: ROD MONOCHROMACY OR ACHROMACY DICHROMACY PROTANOPIA DEUTERANOPIA TRITANOPIA ROD MONOCHROMACY OR ACHROMACY PEOPLE WITH THIS CONDITION HAVE NO COLOR VISION AT ALL. IT IS THUS THE ONLYPEOPLE WITH THIS CONDITION HAVE NO COLOR VISION AT ALL. IT IS THUS THE ONLY TRUE FORM OF PURE COLOR BLINDNESS. PEOPLE WITH THIS CONDITION HAVE CONES THAT ARE NONFUNCTIONAL. THEY SEE ONLY SHADES OF GRAY, AS A FUNCTION OF THEIR VISION THROUGH THE RODS OF THE EYE. MOST PEOPLE WHO SUFFER FROM DEFICITS IN COLOR PERCEPTION CAN STILL SEE SOME COLOR, DESPITE THE NAME “COLOR BLINDNESS.”  DICHROMACY ONLY TWO OF THE MECHANISMS FOR COLOR PERCEPTION WORK, AND ONE IS MALFUNCTIONING.  THE RESULT OF THIS MALFUNCTION IS ONE OF THREE TYPES OF COLOR BLINDNESS (COLOR- PERCEPTION DEFICITS).  MOST COMMON IS RED-GREEN COLOR BLINDNESS. PEOPLE WITH THIS FORM OF COLOR-BLINDNESS HAVE DIFFICULTY IN DISTINGUISHING RED FROM GREEN, ALTHOUGH THEY MAY BE ABLE TO DISTINGUISH, FOR EXAMPLE, DARK RED FROM LIGHT GREEN.  PROTANOPIA THE EXTREME FORM OF RED- GREEN COLOR BLINDNESS.  DEUTERANOPIA TROUBLE SEEING GREENS.  TRITANOPIA BLUES AND GREENS CAN BE CONFUSED, BUT YELLOWS ALSO CAN SEEM TO DISAPPEAR OR TO APPEAR AS LIGHT SHADES OF REDS. WHY DOES IT MATTER?  PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES AND CHANGE BLINDNESS PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN ACCIDENTS AND EFFORTS AT ACCIDENT PREVENTION. ABOUT 50% OF ALL COLLISION ACCIDENTS ARE A RESULT OF MISSING OR DELAYED PERCEPTION (NAKAYAMA, 1978). GENERALLY, PEOPLE ARE NOT AWARE OF THE DANGER OF CHANGE BLINDNESS AND BELIEVE THAT THEY WILL BE ABLE TO SEE ALL OBSTACLES WHEN LOOKING IN A PARTICULAR DIRECTION (“CHANGE BLINDNESS BLINDNESS”, SIMONS & RENSINK, 2005; DAVIS ET AL., 2008).  THIS TENDENCY HAS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EDUCATION OF DRIVER WITH REGARD TO THEIR PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES  The End THANKS FOR LISTENING! QUIZ HAHHAHA  TRUE/FALSE ERSURE = 0 PTS 1. THE KEY TO PERCEPTION IS SENSATION  2. SENSATION IS YOUR INTERPRETATION OF THE DISTAL OBJECT 3. CONSTRUCTIVE PERCEPTION THEORY EMPHASIZES WHERE PEOPLE ACTIVELY CONSTRUCT THEIR PERCEPTION BASED ON PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND EXPECTATIONS  4. VIEWER-CENTERED REPRESENTATION REFERS TO REMEMBERING OBJECTS BY THEIR TRUE SHAPE, REGARDLESS OF THEIR APPEARANCE FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES. 5. DEPTH CUES IN PHOTOGRAPHY MAKE FLAT IMAGES LOOK TWO-DIMENSIONAL, LACKING A REALISTIC EFFECT. 6. THE FIGURE-GROUND EFFECT IS A PRINCIPLE THAT EXPLAINS HOW WE FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF AN OBJECT RATHER THAN ITS OVERALL SHAPE.  7. MONONOCULAR DEPTH CUES REQUIRE THE USE OF BOTH EYES TO ESTIMATE DISTANCES.  8. PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY ALLOWS US TO SEE OBJECTS AS CHANGING SIZE WHEN THEY MOVE CLOSER OR FARTHER AWAY.  IDENTIFICATION ERASURE =.5 PTS 9. WHAT ARE THE 2 RECEPTOR CELLS IN OUR VISUAL SYSTEM? 10.WHAT SPECIFIC DEMON IN THE PANDEMONIUM MODEL IS RESPONSIBLE FOR DECODING SPECIFIC COMPONENTS 11. ALSO KNOWN AS THE ECOLOGICAL PERCEPTION  12. WHAT VISUAL ILLUSION DEMONSTRATES HOW CONTEXTUAL CUES CAN TRICK THE BRAIN INTO PERCEIVING LINES OF THE SAME LENGTH AS DIFFERENT? 13. TYPE OF AGNOSIA THAT CAN SEE ALL PARTS OF THE VISUAL FIELD, BUT THE OBJECTS THEY SEE DO NOT MEAN ANYTHING TO THEM. 14. PEOPLE WITH THIS DEFICIT HAVE TROUBLE REACHING FOR THINGS. 15. WHAT ARE THE 2 PATHWAYS