USTET Science and English Notes PDF

Science -Atom:Smallest unit of an element -Heterogeneous:Mixture whose components can be separated -Homogeneous:Mixture whose components can’t be separated -Physical property:changes you can see without changing the substance (color, melting/boiling point) -Chemical property:observed after...

Science -Atom:Smallest unit of an element -Heterogeneous:Mixture whose components can be separated -Homogeneous:Mixture whose components can’t be separated -Physical property:changes you can see without changing the substance (color, melting/boiling point) -Chemical property:observed after a chemical reaction(flammability) -Intensive property:Doesn’t depend on the amount of matter(Density,Temp.,Color) -Extensive property:Depends on the amount of matter(Mass,Volume,Moles) -Viscosity:Resistance of a liquid to flow/malagkit (honey) -Isotopes:Elements with same number of protons, they have different mass number but same atomic number Atomic Theories: -Democritus,500BC:All matter is composed of the smallest indivisible particle -John Dalton,1803:Coined the word “atom”, shaped like a billiard ball -J.J. Thompson,1904:Proposed the Plum Pudding Model, atom is made up of a big positive sphere (plum), with smaller negative charges embedded inside (pudding). -Ernest Rutherford,1911:Made the Nuclear model, positive charges are localized in the nucleus of an atom -Niels Bohr,1913:Made the Planetary Model, stated that electrons moved around the nucleus in orbits of fixed sizes or energies. -Erwin Schrodinger,1926:Made the Quantum Model, stated that it was impossible to to know the exact location of electrons, instead we have “clouds of probability” called orbitals Mixture:Combination of two or more substances that retain their individual properties. Periodic trends: How to name Covalent compounds(Dummy version): 1.Add -Ide at the end of the second element compound 2.Use the prefix mono-(1), di-(2), tri-(3), tetra-(4), penta-(5) to indicate the number of the element Examples: Mole:Substance of a chemical that contains 6.022x10^23 of an elementary chemical unit Molar mass:Known as “mass per mole”, its the mass amount available in a mole of a given substance: For atoms:molar mass is same atomic mass/weight Ex:Atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008u, therefore there is approximately 1.008 grams per mole of hydrogen For molecules:molar mass is sum of all atomic masses/weights Ex:Water(H2O) is made up of two hydrogen atoms (1.008u)atoms and one oxygen atom (15.999u), therefore the molar mass is (1.008+1.008+15.999)=18.015, in other words there is 18.015 grams per mole of water Biomolecules:Its essential for life and is a combination of (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur) “CHONPS”. Cellular respiration:The process in which cells convert glucose into ATP Protein Synthesis:Function of a ribosome in a cell Cell membrane:main function is to regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell. Mitochondria:the part of the cell where the krebs cycle takes place/ powerhouse of the cell Cell Division: -Mitosis:Done by non-reproductive cells, cell divides itself into two identical daughter cells -Meiosis:done by reproductive cells (sperm, egg), produces four daughter cells (haploid) Flowers: -Perfect:has both male and female reproductive parts -Imperfect:Only has one reproductive part -Complete:contains sepals, petals, pistils, and stamens -Incomplete:Missing one of those parts Mendelian Genetics: -Allele:One or two more versions of a DNA sequence -Dominant Allele:dictates the character of the organism, represents dominant trait -Recessive Allele:shadowed by the dominant allele, represents recessive trait Law of segregation:states that each organism has two alleles for each gene, which segregate during meiosis Steps of Mitosis “PPMAT”: 1.Prophase 2.Prometaphase 3.Metaphase 4.Anaphase 5.Telophase 6.Cytokinesis Animal Relationships: -Predation:An organism eats another organism (Lion-Zebra) -Parasitism:One organism benefits at the expense of another(Human-Tapeworm) -Mutualism:Both organisms benefit from their relationship(Bees-Flowers) -Commensalism:An organism benefits without harming the other(Birds making nest in tree hole) Transpiration:Happens when plants move the water from the roots to the leaves Neuron:Basic unit in nervous system Insulin:Hormone that regulates blood glucose levels DNA:Genetic material in most organisms, material for heredity of all living things -genetic information stored as code made up of four nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine) -Chargaff’s rule says that Adenine must be paired up with Thymine, and Cytosine with Guanine (Just use the mnemonic:Apples on the Tree, Cars on the Garage) Central dogma shit: Translation:Process of producing proteins from the mRNA Scalar: -Quantities that can be described as only a magnitude -Examples:Distance, Mass, Temperature, Speed, Energy, Volume Vector: -Quantities that can be described using both magnitude and direction -Examples:Displacement, Weight, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum -Symbols with arrows above indicate a vector -Momentum:Product of the mass and velocity of an object -Archimedes’ Principle:States that force exerted by a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Thermodynamics: -Zeroth law:If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then the two systems are also in equilibrium -The consequence of the fact that heat will always transfer from a hotter region to a colder one -First law:Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another -Second law:Entropy of a system will always increase -Amount of available excess heat in a system (car engine) -Third law:As a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a constant value -Coulomb’s law:Opposite charges(positive,negative) attract while like charges repel Series vs Parallel Circuit: Series: -Connects all circuit components into one path -If one component is removed, the circuit is incomplete Parallel: -Connects circuit components into branched pathways -If one component is removed, the circuit is still complete (also called “close circuit”) Waves:Disturbance that travels and carries energy from one place to another Mechanical waves: -Longitudinal waves-disturbance is parallel to the direction of the wave -Transverse waves-disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of the wave Electromagnetic waves: -Produced by the interaction of electric and magnetic waves -Does not require a medium to propagate, unlike mechanical waves Wave anatomy: Wave Phenomena: -Reflection:Bouncing back of a wave as soon as it hits a boundary/obstacle -Refraction:The bending of a wave as it passes through from one material to another -Diffraction:The spreading out of light from a linear path due to its passage to narrow slits -Interference:Two waves meet to either increase the amplitude (constructive) or cancel each other out (destructive). Electromagnetic Spectrum:Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared Light, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and Gamma rays -The more you go to the right, the wavelength decreases while the frequency increases -Use the mnemonic: Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns Types of Rocks: Igneous rocks:form when molten rock (magma or lava) cools or solidifies Types of Igneous rocks: -Intrusive igneous rocks:crystallise below the Earth’s surface resulting in large crystals(Granite and Pegmatite) -Extrusive igneous rocks:Erupt onto the surface resulting in small crystals (Basalt, Tuff, and Pumice) Metamorphic rocks:existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or reactive fluids Types of metamorphic rocks: -Foliated Metamorphic rocks:produced by exposure to heat and pressure which makes them look layered (Phyllite and Gneiss) -Non-foliated metamorphic rocks:don’t have layers (marble and quartzite) Sedimentary:originate when particles settle out of water or air or by precipitation of minerals from water Types of sedimentary rocks: -Classic sedimentary rocks:formed from mechanical weathering debris(sandstone and siltstone) -Chemical sedimentary rocks:formed from dissolved materials that precipitate from the solution (Iron ore and limestones) -Organic sedimentary rocks:formed from plant or animal debris(Coal and some Dolomites) Parts of the atmosphere: -Troposphere:lowest layer where life reside and weather phenomena occur -Stratosphere:Layer where the ozone is located -Mesosphere:Coldest layer, this is where meteors and asteroids burn before landing on Earth -Thermosphere:Layer where orbiting near-earth satellites are located -Exosphere:Last layer before going to outer space Weather:short term atmospheric conditions Climate:long term atmospheric conditions that may last from years to decades Geological time scale: -Hadean Eon:formation of Earth, magma ocean, intense bombardment of space bodies -Archaean Eon:Life begins as Prokaryotic bacteria, blue-green algae start to produce oxygen -Proterozoic Eon:Multicellular life emerges -Cambrian Period:Multicellular life flourishes and diversifies (Cambrian explosion) -Ordovician Period:Age of invertebrates -Silurian Period:Emergence of plants on land -Devonian Period:Age of fishes, towards the end true amphibians emerged -Carboniferous Period:Age of amphibians -Mississippian:Amphibians diversified; large coal swamps formed -Pensylvianian:Emergence of reptiles -Permian period:existence of pangaea -Triassic period:dinosaurs emerged, age of reptiles -Jurassic period:dinosaurs dominated the Earth, birds emerged -Cretaceous period:First flowering plants emerged, marked the end of the age of reptiles with the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (K-T Extinction) -Paleogene Period:start of the age of mammals -Neogene period:Mammals and birds evolved into modern forms -Quaternary period:Current period, a cycle of glacial and interglacial periods English Discourse:Usually serves as a writer’s or a scholar’s analysis of a concept, can be written or spoken Purpose of discourse: -inform:provide a comprehensive or descriptive discussion on the topic\ -entertain:provides a source of entertainment for its readers -persuade:tries to convince readers that the proposed claim is better than other proposals. Contexts of discourse: -Culture:things like beliefs, customs, attitudes, languages, and other things that can define culture may influence the author’s perspective on several issues. -Experiences:First-hand experience or personal accounts establish credibility of information -Social environment:the physical surroundings, social relationships, as well as the time of culture (e.g. 19th century) may influence the author’s writing Types of discourse: Argumentation: -Aims to persuade -presents valid claims or counterclaims -should appeal to logic Description: -based on the main impression of the author about the topic or subject Exposition: -aims to inform, clarify, and explain a phenomena Narration: -Like a story in terms of telling events in a chronological order -Told in the first or third person point of view -It has two structures:Linear and Nonlinear -Linear:follows the typical format of beginning, middle, and end -Nonlinear:May start from the end or in the middle Literary discourse:used for nonfiction, and also for business communication Types of literary discourse: Transactional: -commonly found in instruction materials -provides detailed information on how to do something -encourages the reader to do something Poetic: -found in creative works like poems, short stories, and novels -focused on how language is used to form themes or ideologies. Expressive: -found in academic journals, letters, diaries, and blogs -written in first person point of view -writer reveals something about their identity -In literary terms, expressive discourses are referred to as creative nonfiction Academic: -expository or argumentative in nature -uses formal language and maintains an objective tone -third person point of view -examples are: essays, journals, synthesis, and research Kinds of nonverbal communication: -Paralanguage:voice cues such as groaning or accent -Gestures:small movements done with the hand or the head -Facial expression:movement of facial features -Posture and personal appearance:the way you dress -Chronemics:language of time, an example of this is always arriving on time -Proxemics:language of space, shows the relationship between other people -Haptics:language of touch, body-to-body interaction can convey expression Elements of communication: -Sender:transmits the message or conveys the expression -Message:refers to the information, idea or emotion being conveyed -Encoding:the actual process of speaking the message performed by the sender -channel:medium used -decoding:actual process of interpreting the message -receiver:recipient of the message -feedback:reaction or response of the receiver Types of Fallacies: Argumentum Ad Hominem (Argument against the person) -Done by verbally abusing the other -Example:The person running for mayor is ugly, so don’t vote for him Argumentum Ad Verecundiam (Appeal to inappropriate authority) -committed by the use of a person’s authority or popularity -Prime is healthy because Logan Paul and KSI said so. Argumentum Ad Populum (Bandwagon Fallacy) -This fallacy uses the reader’s desire to be loved, esteemed, admired, or accepted by others to make them reach a conclusion -Examples:Everyone is buying the iphone 16, therefore it must be the best phone available. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance) -This is when a claim is considered true because it hasn’t yet been proven false or vice versa. -Examples:You can’t prove that ghosts don’t exist, so they must be real. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to pity) -The use of sympathy or pity in an argument -Example:If you find me guilty of tax evasion, I might be thrown in jail and my family will starve, surely you won’t find me guilty of tax evasion. Fallacy of Post Hoc; Ergo, Propter Hoc (False Cause Fallacy) -This is done when one connects an event to another when there may be no connection at all -Example:I broke my pencil then put it on the tongue of the tiger statue after the exam and I passed, therefore the pencil caused me to pass the USTET. Fallacy of complex question -When a question assumes something unproven or unfair, making the person agree to a hidden assumption. -Example (convo between a mom and a child): Mother:Have you stopped cheating on your exams ? Child:Yes Mother:Therefore, it follows that you have cheated in the past. Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal to force) -Logical fallacy where someone uses threats -Example:”You should agree with my proposal, or else you’ll be fired” Fallacy of Advantage -Occurs when someone argues that a particular action is correct because it benefits them or their group -Example:We should cut business taxes because it's good for the economy -Counterclaim:You say that because you own a business and it will help you Fallacy of Petitio Principii -Referred to as “begging the question argument”, an arguer uses some trick to deceive the listener into thinking that a certain premise is true when it is not. -Example:The rules must be fair because they are the rules. Fallacy of Composition -This fallacy occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on a characteristic from the parts of something onto a whole. -Example:”Each player on the team is an excellent athlete, so the team must be the best in the league.” Fallacy of Division -When there is a conclusion done on a characteristic of something whole to its parts -Example:He spent millions for his house and lot; his furniture must be worth millions too Fallacy of Accident -When a general rule is applied wrong to a specific case -Example:Freedom of a speech is fundamental right, therefore it is wrong to prohibit hate speech. Fallacy of Converse Accident (Hasty Generalization) -This is done when a general rule is given based on circumstantial cases. -Example:When I was in UAE, I met three people from India, and they all smelled bad. Therefore everyone in India must smell bad. Fallacy of Amphiboly -Lack of punctuation -Examples:Please don’t stop kissing me Fallacy of Equivocation -when the conclusion of an argument depends on the fact that one or two words are used in two different senses. -Example: -Premise:A feather is light. -Premise:What is light cannot be dark. -Conclusion:Therefore, a feather cannot be dark Fallacy of Accent -manipulating the meaning of a statement by emphasizing or de-emphasizing specific parts -Examples: -Professor says:Students who fail the final exam will need to retake the course next semester unless they submit a term paper -A student quotes:Students who fail the final exam will need to retake the course next semester