Study Guide: Consciousness, Sleep, and Psychoactive Drugs PDF

Study Guide: Consciousness, Sleep, and Psychoactive Drugs I. Consciousness Definition: Subjective experience of the world, body, and mind. Altered States of Consciousness: ○ Sleep paralysis, out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, hypnosis, meditation...

Study Guide: Consciousness, Sleep, and Psychoactive Drugs I. Consciousness Definition: Subjective experience of the world, body, and mind. Altered States of Consciousness: ○ Sleep paralysis, out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, hypnosis, meditation, drug-induced states. II. Sleep What is Sleep? Low physical activity and reduced awareness. Associated with hormone secretion: ○ Melatonin: Regulates sleep-wake cycle. ○ Growth Hormone: Essential for development and repair. ○ Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone: Related to reproductive processes. Stages of Sleep (90-minute cycles) 1. Stage 1 (Transition): ○ Brief period transitioning from wakefulness. ○ Slowed brain waves, visual "dream-like" photos. 2. Stage 2 (Light Sleep): ○ Brain waves slow further; sleep spindles and K-complexes. ○ 65% of total sleep occurs here. 3. Stages 3 & 4 (Deep Sleep): ○ Delta waves dominate. ○ Growth hormone released; memory consolidation. ○ Critical for feeling rested. 4. Stage 5 (REM Sleep): ○ Rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and paralysis (atonia). ○ Brain active (similar to wakefulness); REM rebound after deprivation. Functions of Sleep 1. Adaptive (Evolutionary): ○ Restore resources, reduce predatory risks. 2. Restorative: ○ Memory consolidation, learning, immune/cardiovascular benefits. 3. Unclear Purpose: ○ Despite theories, the exact necessity remains unknown. Sleep Disorders Insomnia: Difficulty sleeping; ~25% of students experience it. ○ Linked to ADHD, depression, and lifestyle factors. Paradoxical Insomnia: Feeling awake despite sleeping. Narcolepsy: Sudden onset of REM sleep. Sleep Apnea: Airway blockage during sleep. Night Terrors: Sudden arousals with screaming/confusion, mostly in children. REM Behavior Disorder: Acting out dreams due to lack of paralysis. Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Occurs during deep sleep (stage 3). Disruptions in Sleep Circadian Rhythm: ○ Regulated by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN). ○ SCN uses light cues for synchronization. Jet Lag: ○ Misalignment between internal clock and environment. Shift Work: ○ Disrupts circadian rhythm; leads to cognitive decline, exhaustion, and mood issues. Technology: ○ Blue light from devices suppresses melatonin, reducing sleep quality. III. Dreams 1. Freudian Perspective: ○ Dreams fulfill unconscious wishes. ○ Latent Content: Hidden meaning. ○ Manifest Content: Actual storyline. 2. Evolutionary Perspective: ○ Dreams for survival: Process critical information. ○ Cultural studies (e.g., Kurdish children) show stress-related dreams. 3. Neuroscience Perspective: ○ Activation-Synthesis Theory: Brain creates a story from random activity. ○ Emotional centers (limbic system) active, prefrontal cortex less engaged. IV. Sleep Deprivation Effects: ○ Increased stress, emotional overreactions, and impaired cognition. ○ Long-term consequences include cardiovascular risks and mental health issues. Peter Tripp: A "wakeathon" resulted in hallucinations, paranoia, and personality changes. Prevention: Sleep hygiene: ○ Regular schedule, quiet environment, and avoiding caffeine before bed. V. Psychoactive Drugs Types of Drugs 1. Stimulants: Increase arousal and energy. ○ Caffeine: Enhances focus; blocks adenosine. ○ Nicotine: Boosts dopamine and norepinephrine. ○ Amphetamines: Increase dopamine (e.g., Adderall). ○ Cocaine: Prevents dopamine reuptake; high doses cause aggression. 2. Depressants: Slow down CNS activity. ○ Alcohol: Low doses stimulate, high doses depress. ○ Barbiturates/Benzodiazepines: Treat anxiety but are highly addictive. ○ Opioids: Pain relief (e.g., morphine, heroin); highly addictive. 3. Hallucinogens: Alter perceptions and sensory experiences. ○ LSD, MDMA, Marijuana: Enhance serotonin activity. Cause hallucinations, altered time perception, or relaxation. Drug Dependence Tolerance: Requires more of the drug for the same effect. Physical Dependence: Withdrawal symptoms occur without the drug. Psychological Dependence: Cravings to handle stress or emotions. VI. Key Concepts to Focus On 1. Sleep Paralysis: ○ Occurs during REM transitions; linked to cultural influences. 2. Circadian Rhythm: ○ SCN and melatonin role. 3. Dream Theories: ○ Freud (wish fulfillment), Evolutionary (survival), Neuroscience (activation-synthesis). 4. Psychoactive Drug Effects: ○ Differentiate between stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens. Study Guide: Week 6 - Learning I. Learning Basics 1. Definition of Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. ○ Conscious and unconscious processes are involved. 2. Types of Learning: ○ Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus. ○ Sensitization: Increased response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. II. Unlearned Behaviors 1. Reflexes: ○ Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli. ○ Protective and essential for survival. ○ Examples: Pupillary light reflex, startle reflex, withdrawal reflex. 2. Instincts: ○ Innate drives or patterns of behavior. ○ More complex than reflexes; involve higher brain centers. ○ Examples: Migration, sexual activity. III. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) 1. Overview: Learning to associate stimuli to anticipate events. ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response. ○ Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to the UCS. ○ Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially doesn't elicit a response. ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, triggers response after conditioning. ○ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.  2. Process: ○ Acquisition: NS paired with UCS until NS becomes CS. ○ Extinction: CR decreases when CS is presented without UCS. ○ Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after rest. ○ Stimulus Generalization: CR elicited by similar stimuli. ○ Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between similar stimuli. 3. Examples: ○ Pavlov's dogs: Bell (CS) paired with food (UCS) causes salivation (CR). ○ Marketing: Pair products (NS) with appealing stimuli (e.g., music, UCS). ○ Little Albert: Conditioned fear of rats generalized to similar stimuli (e.g., fur coats). 4. Special Cases: ○ Taste Aversion: Learned after one trial, resistant to extinction. ○ Fetishes: Sexual attraction to non-living objects conditioned by pairing arousal with the stimulus. IV. Operant Conditioning (Skinner, Thorndike) 1. Law of Effect: ○ Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to recur. ○ Behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely. 2. Key Components: ○ Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior. Positive: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., praise). Negative: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., seatbelt alarm). ○ Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior. Positive: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., scolding). Negative: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., confiscating a toy). 3. Issues with Punishment: ○ Only teaches what not to do. ○ Can cause anxiety or encourage sneaky behavior. ○ May model aggression.  4. Schedules of Reinforcement: ○ Continuous Reinforcement: Reward every occurrence; leads to quick learning and extinction. ○ Partial Reinforcement: Reward intermittently; leads to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction. 5. Partial Reinforcement Schedules: ○ Fixed Interval: Predictable time intervals (e.g., weekly paycheck). ○ Variable Interval: Unpredictable time intervals (e.g., checking messages). ○ Fixed Ratio: Predictable number of responses (e.g., factory work). ○ Variable Ratio: Unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines). V. Biological Influences on Learning 1. Limits of Learning: ○ Evolutionary predispositions (e.g., fear of snakes/spiders). ○ Instinctive Drift: Animals revert to natural behaviors despite reinforcement. 2. Applications: ○ Operant principles can explain superstitions. ○ Partial reinforcement can explain why some stay in abusive relationships (e.g., occasional acts of kindness reinforce). VI. Cognitive Approaches to Learning 1. Latent Learning (Tolman): ○ Learning occurs without reinforcement and is demonstrated when needed. ○ Example: Rats formed cognitive maps of mazes without rewards. 2. Observational Learning (Bandura): ○ Learning by watching others. ○ Steps: 1. Attention. 2. Retention. 3. Reproduction. 4. Motivation. ○ Examples: Bandura’s Bobo Doll study (children modeled aggressive behaviors). VII. Media Violence and Learning 1. Impact of Media: ○Frequent exposure to violence can lower inhibitions, distort perceptions, and desensitize individuals to aggression. ○ Studies link violent video games to increased aggression and delinquent behavior. 2. Examples: ○ Columbine shooters reportedly influenced by violent media. ○ Children exposed to violent TV shows model aggressive behavior. Key Concepts to Focus On Reflexes vs. Instincts. Components of classical and operant conditioning. Reinforcement schedules and their effects. Biological and cognitive limits on learning. Observational learning and media influence. Topic 7: Memory Understanding Memory Memory Misconceptions: ○ Memory is often thought to be like a recording device but is instead reconstructive and dynamic. It can be influenced by our own edits and others' input (Beth Loftus: Wikipedia analogy). Memory Definition: ○ The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. ○ Adaptive but prone to errors, often “filling in the gaps.” ○ Our brains create coherent narratives even with limited or incomplete information. Three-Stage Model of Memory 1. Sensory Memory: ○ Brief storage of sensory input (visual, auditory, etc.). ○ Types: Iconic: Visual information (