Unit 4 Honors Study Guide: Protein Synthesis & Mutations PDF

‭Unit‬‭4‬‭HONORS‬‭Study‬‭Guide:‬‭Protein‬‭Synthesis‬‭&‬‭Mutations‬ ‭DNA‬‭Structure‬‭&‬‭Replication‬ ‭‬ ‭DNA‬‭Structure‬ ‭○‬ N ‭ ucleotide‬‭:‬‭Composed‬‭of‬‭a‬‭sugar‬‭(deoxyribose),‬‭a‬‭phosphate‬‭group,‬‭and‬‭a‬ ‭nitrogenous‬‭base‬‭(A,‬‭T,‬‭C,‬‭G).‬ ‭○‬ ‭C...

‭Unit‬‭4‬‭HONORS‬‭Study‬‭Guide:‬‭Protein‬‭Synthesis‬‭&‬‭Mutations‬ ‭DNA‬‭Structure‬‭&‬‭Replication‬ ‭‬ ‭DNA‬‭Structure‬ ‭○‬ N ‭ ucleotide‬‭:‬‭Composed‬‭of‬‭a‬‭sugar‬‭(deoxyribose),‬‭a‬‭phosphate‬‭group,‬‭and‬‭a‬ ‭nitrogenous‬‭base‬‭(A,‬‭T,‬‭C,‬‭G).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Chargaff's‬‭Rule‬‭:‬‭A‬‭=‬‭T‬‭and‬‭C‬‭=‬‭G‬‭(complementary‬‭base‬‭pairing).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Antiparallel‬‭:‬‭The‬‭two‬‭strands‬‭of‬‭DNA‬‭run‬‭in‬‭opposite‬‭directions‬‭(5'‬‭to‬‭3'‬‭vs‬‭3'‬‭to‬ ‭5').‬ ‭○‬ ‭Contributions‬‭of‬‭Scientists‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭Watson‬‭and‬‭Crick:‬‭Discovery‬‭of‬‭the‬‭double-helix‬‭structure.‬ ‭‬ ‭Rosalind‬‭Franklin:‬‭X-ray‬‭diffraction‬‭images‬‭contributing‬‭to‬‭the‬‭structure.‬ ‭‬ ‭Erwin‬‭Chargaff:‬‭Base‬‭pairing‬‭rules‬‭(A‬‭=‬‭T,‬‭C‬‭=‬‭G).‬ ‭‬ D ‭ NA‬‭Replication‬ ‭○‬ ‭Enzymes‬‭Involved‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭Helicase‬‭:‬‭Unwinds‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭helix.‬ ‭‬ ‭DNA‬‭Polymerase‬‭:‬‭Adds‬‭complementary‬‭nucleotides‬‭to‬‭the‬‭growing‬ ‭strand.‬ ‭‬ ‭Ligase‬‭:‬‭Seals‬‭the‬‭gaps‬‭between‬‭the‬‭Okazaki‬‭fragments.‬ ‭‬ ‭Primase‬‭:‬‭Creates‬‭RNA‬‭primers‬‭to‬‭start‬‭replication.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Leading‬‭Strand‬‭:‬‭Continuously‬‭synthesized‬‭in‬‭the‬‭5'‬‭to‬‭3'‬‭direction.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Lagging‬‭Strand‬‭:‬‭Discontinuously‬‭synthesized‬‭in‬‭fragments‬‭(Okazaki‬‭fragments).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Okazaki‬‭Fragments‬‭:‬‭Short‬‭segments‬‭of‬‭DNA‬‭synthesized‬‭on‬‭the‬‭lagging‬‭strand.‬ ‭Protein‬‭Synthesis‬ ‭‬ ‭Transcription‬ ‭‬ W ○ ‭ here‬‭:‬‭Occurs‬‭in‬‭the‬‭nucleus‬‭(in‬‭eukaryotes).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Process‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭RNA‬‭Polymerase‬‭binds‬‭to‬‭DNA‬‭at‬‭the‬‭promoter‬‭region.‬ ‭‬ ‭RNA‬‭polymerase‬‭creates‬‭an‬‭mRNA‬‭strand‬‭using‬‭the‬‭DNA‬‭template.‬ ‭‬ ‭mRNA‬‭is‬‭synthesized‬‭from‬‭5'‬‭to‬‭3'.‬ ‭‬ ‭RNA‬‭Processing‬‭:‬‭In‬‭eukaryotes,‬‭the‬‭mRNA‬‭is‬‭spliced,‬‭adding‬‭a‬‭cap‬‭and‬ ‭tail.‬ ‭ ‬ ‭Translation‬ ‭‬ W ○ ‭ here‬‭:‬‭Occurs‬‭in‬‭the‬‭ribosome‬‭(in‬‭the‬‭cytoplasm).‬ ‭○‬ ‭Process‬‭:‬  ‭‬ m ‭ RNA‬‭is‬‭read‬‭in‬‭sets‬‭of‬‭three‬‭bases‬‭(codons).‬ ‭‬ ‭tRNA‬‭brings‬‭the‬‭corresponding‬‭amino‬‭acids‬‭to‬‭the‬‭ribosome.‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭ribosome‬‭forms‬‭peptide‬‭bonds‬‭between‬‭amino‬‭acids‬‭to‬‭form‬‭a‬ ‭polypeptide‬‭chain.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Codon‬‭Chart/Wheel‬‭:‬‭Use‬‭the‬‭codon‬‭chart‬‭to‬‭match‬‭mRNA‬‭codons‬‭to‬‭amino‬ ‭acids.‬ ‭ ‬ ‭START‬‭Codon‬‭:‬‭AUG,‬‭signals‬‭the‬‭beginning‬‭of‬‭translation.‬ ○ ‭○‬ ‭STOP‬‭Codons‬‭:‬‭UAA,‬‭UAG,‬‭UGA,‬‭signal‬‭the‬‭end‬‭of‬‭translation.‬ ‭Gene‬‭Expression‬ ‭‬ I‭mportance‬‭:‬‭Gene‬‭expression‬‭regulation‬‭is‬‭vital‬‭for‬‭controlling‬‭which‬‭proteins‬‭are‬‭made,‬ ‭when,‬‭and‬‭in‬‭what‬‭amounts.‬ ‭‬ ‭Transcription‬‭Factors‬ ‭‬ P ○ ‭ ositive‬‭Transcription‬‭Factors‬‭:‬‭Activate‬‭or‬‭enhance‬‭gene‬‭expression.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Negative‬‭Transcription‬‭Factors‬‭:‬‭Repress‬‭gene‬‭expression.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Binding‬‭Sites‬‭:‬‭Transcription‬‭factors‬‭bind‬‭to‬‭specific‬‭regions‬‭on‬‭the‬‭promoter‬‭of‬‭a‬ ‭gene‬‭to‬‭regulate‬‭its‬‭transcription.‬ ‭ ‬ ‭Interfering‬‭RNA‬ ‭○‬ ‭Types‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭miRNA‬‭(microRNA)‬‭and‬‭siRNA‬‭(small‬‭interfering‬‭RNA)‬‭.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Function‬‭:‬‭They‬‭regulate‬‭gene‬‭expression‬‭by‬‭binding‬‭to‬‭mRNA‬‭and‬‭preventing‬ ‭translation‬‭or‬‭promoting‬‭mRNA‬‭degradation.‬ ‭‬ O ‭ perons‬ ‭‬ D ○ ‭ efinition‬‭:‬‭A‬‭group‬‭of‬‭genes‬‭regulated‬‭together‬‭under‬‭a‬‭single‬‭promoter.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Lac‬‭Operon‬‭:‬‭Example‬‭of‬‭an‬‭operon‬‭in‬‭bacteria,‬‭regulated‬‭by‬‭the‬‭presence‬‭or‬ ‭absence‬‭of‬‭lactose.‬ ‭‬ E ‭ pigenetics‬ ‭○‬ D ‭ efinition‬‭:‬‭Study‬‭of‬‭changes‬‭in‬‭gene‬‭expression‬‭not‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭changes‬‭in‬‭DNA‬ ‭sequence.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Examples‬‭of‬‭Epigenetic‬‭Markers‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭DNA‬‭Methylation‬‭:‬‭The‬‭addition‬‭of‬‭methyl‬‭groups‬‭to‬‭DNA,‬‭typically‬ ‭represses‬‭gene‬‭expression.‬ ‭‬ ‭Histone‬‭Modification‬‭:‬‭Histone‬‭proteins‬‭can‬‭be‬‭modified‬‭to‬‭either‬ ‭condense‬‭or‬‭relax‬‭chromatin,‬‭affecting‬‭gene‬‭accessibility.‬ ‭Variation‬ ‭‬ ‭Mutations‬ ‭○‬ F ‭ rameshift‬‭Mutations‬‭:‬‭Caused‬‭by‬‭insertions‬‭or‬‭deletions,‬‭which‬‭shift‬‭the‬‭reading‬ ‭frame‬‭of‬‭the‬‭codons,‬‭leading‬‭to‬‭a‬‭completely‬‭different‬‭protein.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Point‬‭Mutations‬‭:‬‭Changes‬‭in‬‭a‬‭single‬‭nucleotide‬‭base.‬ ‭‬ ‭Substitution‬‭:‬‭One‬‭base‬‭is‬‭replaced‬‭by‬‭another‬‭(may‬‭or‬‭may‬‭not‬‭change‬ ‭the‬‭protein).‬ ‭‬ ‭Silent‬‭Mutation‬‭:‬‭No‬‭change‬‭in‬‭the‬‭protein‬‭sequence.‬ ‭‬ ‭Missense‬‭Mutation‬‭:‬‭Changes‬‭one‬‭amino‬‭acid‬‭in‬‭the‬‭protein‬‭sequence.‬ ‭‬ ‭Nonsense‬‭Mutation‬‭:‬‭Changes‬‭a‬‭codon‬‭to‬‭a‬‭stop‬‭codon,‬‭leading‬‭to‬‭a‬ ‭truncated‬‭protein.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Impact‬‭on‬‭Fitness‬‭:‬‭Mutations‬‭can‬‭cause‬‭variations‬‭that‬‭are‬‭either‬‭beneficial,‬ ‭harmful,‬‭or‬‭neutral‬‭for‬‭an‬‭individual’s‬‭survival‬‭and‬‭reproduction.‬ ‭○‬ ‭Chromosomal‬‭Mutations‬‭:‬ ‭‬ ‭Deletions‬‭:‬‭Part‬‭of‬‭a‬‭chromosome‬‭is‬‭lost.‬ ‭‬ ‭Duplications‬‭:‬‭Part‬‭of‬‭a‬‭chromosome‬‭is‬‭repeated.‬ ‭‬ ‭Inversions‬‭:‬‭Part‬‭of‬‭a‬‭chromosome‬‭is‬‭reversed.‬ ‭‬ ‭Translocations‬‭:‬‭Parts‬‭of‬‭chromosomes‬‭are‬‭swapped.‬ ‭‬ M ‭ utations‬‭and‬‭Population‬‭Variation‬ ‭○‬ M ‭ utations‬‭contribute‬‭to‬‭genetic‬‭diversity‬‭within‬‭a‬‭population,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭lead‬‭to‬ ‭natural‬‭selection‬‭(positive,‬‭negative,‬‭or‬‭neutral‬‭effects).‬ ‭Root‬‭Words‬ ‭‬ ‭ ro-‬‭:‬‭Before,‬‭in‬‭front‬‭of.‬ P ‭‬ ‭Poly-‬‭:‬‭Many,‬‭multiple.‬ ‭‬ ‭Hist-‬‭:‬‭Tissue.‬ ‭‬ ‭Anti-‬‭:‬‭Against.‬ ‭‬ ‭Mut-‬‭:‬‭Change,‬‭alter.‬ ‭‬ ‭Non-‬‭:‬‭Not.‬ ‭‬ ‭Mis-‬‭:‬‭Wrong,‬‭incorrect.‬ ‭‬ ‭Sub-‬‭:‬‭Under,‬‭below.‬ ‭‬ ‭Trans-‬‭:‬‭Across,‬‭beyond.‬ ‭‬ ‭-scribe,‬‭-script‬‭:‬‭Write,‬‭record.‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex-‬‭:‬‭Out,‬‭away‬‭from.‬ ‭‬ ‭-gen,‬‭-gene‬‭:‬‭Produce,‬‭create,‬‭origin.‬