United States History PDF

United States History ○ Colonial America In the early 1600s, America traces the founding of the United States to 13 original colonies, which were settled along the eastern coast primarily by groups of people from England. Colonies we...

United States History ○ Colonial America In the early 1600s, America traces the founding of the United States to 13 original colonies, which were settled along the eastern coast primarily by groups of people from England. Colonies were business ventures aimed at maximising profits for the home country through trade, a system known as mercantilism. English colonists' main purpose was to generate wealth for Britain. Many settlers arrived as indentured servants, working to pay off their passage. Britain also relied on the transatlantic slave trade to supply labour in the North American colonies. The original 13 colonies can be divided into three regions. The New England colonies—Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire—were founded by settlers seeking religious freedom. Due to a cold climate and rocky soil, they struggled to farm and relied on fishing, whaling, and shipbuilding. Boston became an economic centre in the region. The Middle Colonies—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware—had a milder climate, allowing them to grow wheat and other grains. They also had industries like paper, textiles, and iron production. With settlers from Dutch, German, French, and Irish backgrounds, these colonies were the most diverse. The Southern colonies—Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina, and Georgia—had plantation-based economies due to their rich soil. They grew cash crops like cotton, rice, and tobacco and relied on slave labour to boost profits. By the mid-1700s, the 13 colonies had developed different ways of defining and sustaining themselves while maintaining a common life under British rule. ○ American Revolution During the American Revolution, the colonies united to fight for independence, protesting "no taxation without representation" because they were taxed by Britain without any say in its government. The extreme taxes and protests stemmed from the aftermath of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), where Britain, after defeating France and gaining new territory, needed to recover financially and imposed heavy taxes on the colonies to cover war expenses. This led to colonial resentment and protests against British authority. Britain won the war and control of land extending west to the Mississippi River. After the costly French and Indian War, Britain imposed new taxes on the colonies, like the Stamp Act of 1765, to help pay for the war, which angered the colonists. In 1773, the Boston Tea Party occurred when colonists dumped British tea into the harbour in protest. In response, Britain passed the Coercive (or Intolerable) Acts, closing Boston Harbor,  limiting town meetings, and placing British soldiers in colonists' homes, which further inflamed colonial resentment. The Revolutionary War began in 1775 after clashes with British troops. In 1776, the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, with contributions from Benjamin Franklin and John Adams. The colonists won the war with French assistance, forcing Britain to surrender in 1781 and signing a peace treaty in 1783. After the war, the new U.S. government was defined in the U.S. Constitution, ratified between 1787 and 1789. George Washington became the first president, and by 1791, the Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments, was added to protect individual freedoms. ○ Westward Expansion In the 1800s, the U.S. expanded westward, starting with the 1803 Louisiana Purchase under President Thomas Jefferson, doubling the nation's size. The War of 1812 secured U.S. boundaries and cleared the way for western settlement. Westward Expansion, driven by the idea of "manifest destiny," promised opportunity and freedom through land ownership. However, this expansion displaced millions of Native Americans with long-established lifestyles. The push west symbolised growth and wealth for Americans but came at the cost of native populations being forced from their lands. Westward Expansion involved several key routes. The Lewis and Clark expedition (1803–1806), guided by Sacagawea, explored the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest. The Oregon Trail, a 2,000-mile wagon route, was used by pioneers heading to Oregon in the mid-1800s, while the Pony Express briefly carried mail across the country. Around 300,000 people migrated to California during the Gold Rush (1848–1855). However, the expansion also deepened tensions between states over slavery, as each new territory had to decide whether to join the Union as a free or slave state, disrupting the balance between North and South. Meanwhile, The Industrial Revolution accelerated movement and growth in the U.S., boosting manufacturing and creating new jobs. New transportation systems, including canals and railroads like the Transcontinental Railroad, connected major cities such as New York and San Francisco. By 1860, the U.S. population had grown to 31 million across 33 states. ○ Civil war By the mid-1800s, the U.S. was deeply divided over slavery, with Southerners fearing its abolition and Northerners opposing its expansion into new territories. Several key events escalated tensions: in 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin exposed the brutality of slavery to a global audience. In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed  residents to vote on whether they would be free or slave states, leading to violent conflict between pro-slavery and abolitionist forces in "Bleeding Kansas" (1854–1861). In 1857, the Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision ruled that Black people had no rights as citizens. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, an antislavery candidate, won the presidential election. In response, Southern states began seceding from the Union to protect their economic system and property rights, forming the Confederate States of America. The Civil War erupted when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in 1861. The North had significant advantages during the war, including a larger population (22 million vs. 9 million in the South), control of most U.S. industries, and better supply lines. Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation freed enslaved people in Confederate states, and many joined the Union army, strengthening its forces. The war, which ravaged states like Virginia and Tennessee, led to immense loss—one in fifty Americans died, and towns and fields were destroyed. After the Union's victory, the country faced the daunting task of rebuilding during the Reconstruction era. TO SUMMARISE. ○ The South fought to keep slave labor for the agricultural economy resulting in a low population (9 million) ○ The North has kept immigrant labor for its more industrial economy therefore attracting larger populations to cities (22 million people). ○ Reconstruction While the Union declared the victory of the Civil War in April 1865, reunifying the country would be a continued battle during the Reconstruction era (1865-1877). Lincoln’s 10% Plan required 10 per cent of voters in a Southern state to oath of allegiance to the Union for the state to rejoin. He offered pardons to Confederates and promised to protect private property, aiming for a quick reunification. However, Lincoln's assassination ended his plans for Reconstruction, leaving the future uncertain. Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's successor, prioritized states' rights during Reconstruction, allowing Southern landowners and state governments to rebuild themselves. He returned land seized during the war to its original owners, even land that had been redistributed through the Freedmen's Bureau, which was set up to help formerly enslaved and displaced people after the Civil War. During Johnson's administration, Southern states passed "black codes" that severely restricted the rights of formerly Black people, prohibiting them from owning property, or firearms, testifying in court, or being in certain areas. Some laws allowed the arrest of Black people for vagrancy, leading to forced labour; this exception to the 13th  Amendment, which ended slavery except as a penalty for a crime, which continued slavery through the penal labour system. Many formerly enslaved people also turned to sharecropping, where they rented land from owners in exchange for a portion of their crops. Northern members of Congress opposed Johnson's policies and passed laws despite his vetoes, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which guaranteed equal protection under the law for all citizens, and the Reconstruction Act of 1867, dividing the South into five military-controlled districts and enabling freedmen to vote. To rejoin the Union, Southern states had to ratify the 14th Amendment, granting citizenship and equal protection to formerly enslaved people. By 1870, would protect the right to vote regardless of race by the 15th Amendment. AMENDMENT 13 Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” AMENDMENT 14 “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” AMENDMENT 15 “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude. All three amendments mention enslaved people or slavery, so the keyword here is citizenship (or citizens), which you can find only in the 14th Amendment. The 13th Amendment declares only that slavery no longer exists; the 15th Amendment concerns only the right to vote. ○ The Progressive Era From the 1890s to the 1920s, the Progressive Era in the U.S. focused on social activism and political reform aimed at improving democratic society and eliminating corruption. Activists responded to urbanization, addressing poor living conditions in overcrowded tenements, exemplified by Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago. They also fought against unsafe factory practices, with labour unions forming to advocate for workers' rights through strikes to negotiate for better pay and safer environments. Muckrakers, like Upton Sinclair, used journalism to expose corruption, leading to reforms, such as those prompted by Sinclair’s The Jungle, which investigated the meat-packing industry. Overall, the era saw significant improvements and standardisation in various sectors. During the Progressive Era, women significantly contributed to activism and gained political influence. The Temperance movement, primarily led by women, resulted in Prohibition under the 18th Amendment, which made alcohol illegal in the U.S. In 1920, the 19th Amendment granted women suffrage. Other political reforms aimed to reduce corruption and strengthen democracy. The Sherman Antitrust Act, the “trust-busting” law, was the first law to ban monopolies, promoting fair competition, while the Federal Trade Commission Act outlawed anticompetitive practices. The 16th Amendment established an income tax to fund the government, and the 17th Amendment allowed for the direct election of senators, enhancing direct democracy. ○ World War 1 (1914-1918) World War I resulted from several underlying factors built in Europe for years. One of the main causes was the complex system of alliances between countries, such as Russia and Serbia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, France and Russia, and Britain with France and Belgium. These alliances meant that if one nation was attacked, its allies were obligated to join the conflict, turning a small dispute into a larger war. Imperialism, or the expansion of empires by seizing colonies in Africa and Asia, also heightened tensions. European countries competed for  control of new territories. Alongside imperialism, militarism played a significant role as countries expanded their military capabilities, preparing for potential conflict. This arms race led to larger armies, more advanced weapons, and a greater readiness for war. Nationalism, the belief in the superiority and power of one’s nation, also fueled the conflict. It motivated countries to assert their dominance and led directly to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in 1914. His death set off a chain reaction, with Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, pulling Russia, Germany, and other nations into the conflict due to their alliances. Although the war began in 1914, the United States remained neutral until 1917. As a nation of immigrants, many Americans were reluctant to get involved in the European conflict. However, by 1917, the U.S. was drawn into the war due to various factors, including attacks on American ships and Germany’s attempts to form alliances against the U.S. Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, sinking the British ship Lusitania, which killed over 100 Americans. Additionally, the British intercepted the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico, promising to help Mexico reclaim lands lost to the U.S. The U.S. declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917. Over a million Americans joined the military, while citizens supported the war effort by producing war materials, rationing, and buying war bonds. Government propaganda encouraged patriotism, linking these efforts to the defence of democracy. ○ Great Depression (1929-1939) After World War I, with the economic growth ordinary people began investing in the stock market, speculating on future business profits by buying company shares. Many did this on credit, borrowing money from banks to invest in the rapidly rising stock market. In the summer of 1929, business slowed, prices dropped, and profits declined, leading investors to sell their shares, causing the stock market to crash on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday. As panic spread, many banks were unable to provide cash due to unpaid loans. Job losses and foreclosures followed. Dust storms and food shortages accompanied a drought in 1933 that devastated the Midwest. Hoover resisted government intervention, worsening the Great Depression. A sarcastic name for shantytowns, "Hoovervilles," showed how hard it was for the homeless. After Hoover lost the 1932 Presidential election, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) implemented recovery measures. One of his first actions was the Emergency Banking Act, aimed at stabilizing the banking system. In 1933, FDR introduced the New Deal, a series of programs designed to create jobs and provide economic security. The  Works Progress Administration (WPA) played a key role in reducing unemployment, which had reached 25%, by employing millions to build infrastructure. The Social Security Act of 1935, part of the New Deal, established unemployment benefits and pensions for retirees. World War II, however, ultimately revitalized the U.S. economy after the New Deal provided some relief during the Great Depression. Factories shifted to war production, creating 17 million new jobs, and allowing Americans to pay off debts and save money. ○ World War 2