World History Past Paper PDF

The Year of Crisis 21.1 TECHNOLOGY ADVANCEMENT ​ Einstein: Theory of Relativity ○​ The speed of light is constant, but space and time can change relative to an object moving near the speed of light. ​ Freud: Theories of the Human Mind ○​ (He believed that much...

The Year of Crisis 21.1 TECHNOLOGY ADVANCEMENT ​ Einstein: Theory of Relativity ○​ The speed of light is constant, but space and time can change relative to an object moving near the speed of light. ​ Freud: Theories of the Human Mind ○​ (He believed that much of human behavior is irrational, or beyond reason. He called the irrational part of the mind the unconscious) WWI LEADS TO PESSIMISM(悲觀主義) & DISILLUSIONMENT(幻滅感) ​ The horrors of the war shattered the Enlightenment belief that progress would continue and reason would prevail. ​ Post-WWI, artists, musicians, writers, philosophers, and, scientists began to question traditional views. LITERATURE & THE LOST GENERATION Many artists, authors, and poets moved to cultural centers like Paris. ​ Gertrude Stein called this group, many of whom were Americans, the “Lost Generation”. Who are trying to find the meaning of life Franz Kafka ​ Eerie novels such as The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926). ○​ His books feature people caught in threatening situations they can neither understand nor escape. James Joyce ​ stream-of-consciousness novel Ulysses (1922). ○​ This book focuses on a single day in the lives of three people in Dublin, Ireland. Joyce broke with normal sentence structure and vocabulary in a bold attempt to mirror the workings of the human mind. 21.3 Fascism Rises in Europe Background The economic crisis caused by the Great Depression ⇒ disbelief in democratic government ​ ⇒ rise of extreme government system — Fascism 1.​ promise to recover the economy 2.​ Extreme nationalism and loyalty to the leader Italy (mid-1920s) Fascism ​ Extreme nationalism ​ Loyalty to an authoritarian leader ○​ Demanding that people obey completely and refusing to allow them freedom to act as they wish ​ One party rule ​ Denial of individual rights Benito Musollini takes control Why? ​ Disappointment over the failure to win large territorial gains at 1919 Paris Conference ​ Inflation and unemployment ​ Democratic Gov helpless How? ​ Promised recovery in economy  ​ Promised rebuild armed forces ​ Promised strong leadership What? ​ Founded Fascist Party in 1919 ​ Fear of workers’ revolt ⇒ support from middle classes ​ October 1922, 30,000 fascists marched on Rome ⇒ Demand King Victor Emmanuel III put Mussolini in charge of the government Policies? Germany Nazism ​ In 1919, Adolf Hitler joined a tiny reght-wing political group (NAZI) ⇒ belief that Germany had to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and combat communism ​ Swastika Adolf Hitler How he came to power? Inspired by Mussolini’s march on Rome ⇒ 1923 Hitler and Nazis attempted to seized power in Much (Failed) ⇒ In jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf ⇒ Set his beliefs and goals for Germany ​ Aryans = Master race ​ None-Aryans ( Jews, Slavs, Gypsiess) = inferior ​ Versailles Treaty an outrage ​ Regain German lands 1924 revived Nazi party Great Depression ⇒ Germany economy collapse, people tuned to Hitler hoping for security and firm leaderhsip Hitler declared lebensraum (living space) ⇒ imperialism, rebuild military and conquer eastern Europe and Russia ⇒ Naziz become strongest political party by 1932 ⇒ Conservative leaders mistakenly believed they could control Hitler and use him for their purposes ⇒ President Paul von Hindenburg gave Hitler power (chancellor) ⇒ Hitler called for new elections, parliament was burned ⇒ blamed the communists ⇒ won election How he rules? Totalitarian (one party rule) SS (Schutzstaffel, or protection squad) loyalty to Hitler Nazi secret police (Gestapo) Hatred on Jews Scapegoats for Germany’s troubles 1933, Nazi passed Laws taking away Jews rights 1939 November 9, Kristallnacht Others Democracy (civil rights) ​ Britian, France, Scandinavian ocuntries, Czechoslovakia Totalitarian (willingness to use military aggression)  ​ Italy, germany, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania 21.4 Aggressors Invade Nations Background Major democracies (Britain, France, and U.S.) distracted by economic problems Fascism spread in Europe Japan fell under military rule Japan 1920s ⇒ democratic 1922 ⇒ signed an international treaty agreeing to respect China’s borders 1928 ⇒ Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war Nationalism, Militarism, Imperialism Problems in Parliamentary System ​ Constitution put strict limits on the power of the prime minister ​ Little control over armed forces Militarists take control ​ 1929, Great Depression ⇒ Japanese blame government ​ Militarists gain control (do not want to establish new system of gov), want traditional control of gov to the military ○​ Emperor as a symbol remain, military control society ○​ Hiroshito ​ Militarists are extreme nationalists, chose imperialism ​ Planned a Pacific empire ⇒ raw materials. markets, rising population Pacific empire Invade Manchuria (rich in iron) ​ 1931 set puppet gov, factories, and mines ​ 1933 Leagure of nation protested ⇒ Japan ignored Invade China (invade from north-east) ​ 1937 Nanjing (capital) fell into Japan ​ “Rape of Nanjing” killed tens of thousand of captured soldiers and civilians ​ Jiang Jieshi retreat westwards set new capital at Chongqing ​ Mao Zedong (communist leader) fight with Japan European Aggressors League of nations fail to stop Japan ⇒ encourage European Fascists to plan aggression Italy Attack on Ethiopia ​ 1890s their conquest failed ​ Octover 1935 invade again (planes, tanks, guns, poison gas) ​ Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie sought for help ⇒ League of nations ignored (Britain and France hope giving Mussolini Ethiopia can keep peace in Europe) Germany Hiter defies Versailles Treaty ​ 1935 March, announced Germany would not obey the restrictions ⇒ League of Nations condemnation ​ 1937 March 7, German troops moved into Rhineland (buffer zone between Germany and France) ​ Britain urged appeasement ​ Turning point in the march toward war ○​ Strengthened Hitler’s power ○​ Balance of power changd Germany’s favor ○​ France and Belgium now open to attack from German troops ○​ Weak response by France and Britain encourage Hitler to speed up expansion​ Axis Powers 1936 October, Germany, Italy reach agreement (Rome-Berlin Axis) November, Japan joined Spanish Civil War ​ 1931 Republic (gov is liberals and socialists ⇒ crisis) ​ 1936 July, army leaders (fascism) joined General Francisco Franco ​ Hitler and Mussolini sent troops to Help Franco’s nationalist force ​ Western democracies remained neutral (republics receive little help) ​ ⇒ Franco won and established a totalitarian regime Democratic Nations Try to Preserve Peace U.S. follow Isolationist Policy Isolationism (political ties to other ocuntries hould be avoided) 1935 Three Neutrality Acts (banned loans and sale of arms to nations at war) German Reich Expands ​ 1937 November 5, announced his plan to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich (German Empire) ​ 1938 Annex Austria (France and britain ignore) ○​ Break Anschluss (union between Austria and Germany by Treaty of Versailles) ​ 1938 Hitler demanded the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) given to Germany ○​ Czechs refused and call for help ​ 1938 September 29, Munich Conference ○​ Czechs not invited ○​ France and Britain (Neville Chamberlain) wish to maintain peace ⇒ agree Hitler to take Sudetenland ○​ Hitler pledged to respect Czechoslovakia’s new borders ​ Six months later, Hitler took Czechoslovakia, Mussolini seized Albania, Hitler demanded Poland Nazis and Soviets Sign Nonaggression Pact (1939 August 23) ​ Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Poland between them ​ USSR could take over Finland and the Baltic countries of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia ​ Cooperation shocked Britain and France ⇒ realized war with Germany was inevitable  22.1 Hitler’s Lightning War Background 1930s, Hitler played on the hopes and fears of the Western democracies ​ First grabbed new territory, declare end to the demand (fake peace) ​ Then Hitler move again He took Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, then turned the eye to Poland in 1939 Germany start new war in Europe Lightning Attack (blitzkrieg) in Mid-1930s Air strikes, fast tanks, and artillery, followed by soldiers sped into battle on trucks, to take enemy defenders by surprise and quickly overwhelm them ​ 1939 September 1, After the nonaggression pact, Hitler quickly moved ahead with plans to conquer Poland ​ 1939 September 3, France and Great Britain declared war on Germany ​ Hitler’s victory Soviets ​ 1939 September 17, Stalin sent Soviet troops to occupy the eastern half of Poland ○​ Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia fell without a struggle, but Finland resisted ​ 1939 November, Stalin wanted quick victory in Finland and did not prepare for winter war ○​ Soviets suffer heavy losses ​ 1940 March, Stalin forced Finns to surrender The Pony War (sitting war) ​ Maginot Kine, a a system of fortifications along France’s border with Germany ○​ Nothing happened (Both troops bored) ​ Allied soldiers stared eastward toward the enemy ​ German soldiers stared back from their Siegfried Line a few miles away  ​ 1940 April 9, Hitler launched a surprise invasion of Denmark and Norway ○​ Germany build bases along the Norwegian and Danish coasts ⇒ wishing to lauch stikes on Britain Fall of France ​ 1940 May, Hitler sweep through the Netherlands, Belguium, and Luxembourg ​ Hitler sent forces of tanks and troops outh to slice through the Ardennes (a heavily wooded area in northern France, Luxembourg, and Belgium) ○​ Allies thought it was a natural barrier ⇒ lightly offended ○​ German forces moved steadily through the forest, fought their way around the Maginot Line and onto French coast Dunkrik ​ End of May 1940, Germans trapped the Allied forces around the northern French city of Lille ​ The Allies retreated to the beaches of Dunkirk (a French port city near the Belgian border) ​ 1940 May 26 to June 4, Britain provided support Fall of France ​ June 14, Germany taken Paris ○​ French leaders surrendered on June 22, 1940 ​ Germany control northern part. Puppet gov by Marshal Philippe Pétain in the southern part (Vichy France) ​ Charles de Gaulle (French general) organize the Free French military forces that battled the Nazis until France was liberated in 1944 Battle of Britain ​ Winston Churchill (new president) ​ With France defeated, Hitler turned his focus to Britain. His plan, Operation Sea Lion, aimed to destroy Britain’s Royal Air Force (RAF) and pave the way for an invasion. ​ The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) began bombing British airfields and factories in summer 1940. By September, the bombing shifted to major cities like London, in what became known as the Blitz. ​ Despite heavy losses, Britain’s RAF defended the country effectively using: ○​ Radar, an innovative technology that detected incoming German planes.  ○​ Enigma, a German code-breaking machine, which allowed the British to anticipate attacks. ​ By May 1941, Hitler called off the invasion of Britain, marking his first major defeat. The Battle of Britain proved that Hitler’s advances could be stopped. THe Mediterranean and the Eastern Front North Africa Campaign ​ While the Battle of Britain was ongoing, Hitler shifted his focus to North Africa. His aim was to support his Axis partner, Mussolini, who sought to expand Italy’s influence. ​ September 1940, Italian forces invaded British-controlled Egypt, targeting the Suez Canal—a critical colonial interest for both the Allies and the Axis. ​ The British counterattacked in December 1940, pushing Italian forces back and capturing thousands of prisoners. ​ To rescue his ally, Hitler sent the Afrika Korps, led by General Erwin Rommel, to North Africa in early 1941. Rommel’s tactical genius earned him the nickname "Desert Fox," as his forces achieved significant victories, including the capture of Tobruk in June 1942. The Balkans and Greece ​ In early 1941, Hitler prepared to invade the Soviet Union but sought to secure his southern flank first. ​ German forces invaded Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941 after both countries resisted joining the Axis Powers. Yugoslavia fell in 11 days, and Greece surrendered in 17 days. Operation Barbarossa ​ June 22, 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union ​ The Germans initially achieved significant gains, capturing vast territories and encircling large Soviet armies. ​ However, the Soviets employed a scorched-earth policy, destroying resources to hinder the German advance. ​ By the winter of 1941, German forces were stalled outside Moscow due to fierce Soviet resistance and freezing temperatures. Hitler’s refusal to allow retreat resulted in significant German losses The United States Aids Its Allies Isolationist Policies ​ Initially, the United States adopted a neutral stance, influenced by the Neutrality Acts (1935-1937), which banned the sale of arms to warring nations. ​ President Franklin D. Roosevelt believed the U.S. needed to support the Allies to prevent the spread of fascism. Lend-Lease Act (March 1941) ​ The U.S. passed the Lend-Lease Act, allowing the president to lend or lease military supplies to any country vital to American security. ​ This act provided significant aid to Britain and later the Soviet Union. Atlantic Charter (August 1941) ​ Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met secretly and outlined their goals for the war in the Atlantic Charter: ○​ No territorial expansion. ○​ Support for self-determination. ○​ Free trade and cooperation between nations. Undeclared Naval War ​ As U.S. ships began escorting British convoys, German U-boats attacked them, leading to clashes in the Atlantic. ​ By late 1941, the U.S. was engaged in an undeclared naval war with Germany, increasing tensions. 22.2 Japan’s Pacific Campaign Background ​ Japan's military expansion began in 1931 with the invasion of Manchuria and continued into China in 1937. ​ Japanese leaders sought resources and territory, targeting European colonies in Southeast Asia. ​ This expansion threatened U.S. interests, leading to rising tensions. Surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor Causes: ○​ In response to Japan’s invasion of French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos), the U.S. cut off oil shipments to Japan in July 1941. ○​ Japanese admiral Isoroku Yamamoto viewed the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor as a threat to its expansionist goals. Attack: ○​ Early morning December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise aerial attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. ○​ Within two hours, Japan destroyed or damaged 19 ships, including 8 battleships, and killed over 2,300 Americans. ○​ This attack shocked the American public and military, leading to an immediate declaration of war. FDR's Speech: ○​ President Franklin D. Roosevelt described December 7 as “a date which will live in infamy.”1 ○​ The U.S. declared war on Japan the next day, with Germany and Italy subsequently declaring war on the U.S. Japanese Victories ​ Japan rapidly expanded its control over the Pacific: ○​ Guam, Wake Island, and Hong Kong fell quickly. ○​ By January 1942, Japan had invaded the Philippines, forcing American and Filipino forces into retreat. ○​ In the Bataan Death March, prisoners were forced to march over 50 miles under brutal conditions; thousands died. ○​ Japan also seized British colonies like Malaya and Singapore, as well as the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). ○​ By mid-1942, Japan controlled over 1 million square miles of Asian land and governed 150 million people. ​ Despite initial promises of “East Asia for the Asiatics,” Japan treated conquered peoples harshly, exploiting resources and using forced labor. 1 The Allies Strike Back Doolittle’s Raid (April 1942) ​ Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle led a bombing raid on Tokyo and other cities. ​ The raid made an important psychological point to both Americans and Japanese: Japan was vulnerable to attack Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) ​ The first major naval battle where aircraft carriers played a central role. ​ Although both sides suffered losses, the Allies stopped Japan’s advance toward Australia. The Battle of Midway ​ Key Event (June 1942): ○​ U.S. naval intelligence intercepted Japanese plans to attack Midway Island. ○​ Admiral Chester Nimitz prepared an ambush, leading to a decisive U.S. victory. ​ Results: ○​ Japan lost four aircraft carriers, a cruiser, and over 300 planes. ○​ This battle marked the turning point in the Pacific, shifting momentum to the Allies. The Allies Turn the Tide ​ Island-Hopping Strategy: ○​ MacAuthur’s strategy. The Allies bypassed heavily defended Japanese islands, focusing on capturing weaker targets to advance toward Japan. ○​ This strategy conserved resources and allowed the Allies to build momentum. ​ Battle of Guadalcanal (August 1942 - February 1943): ○​ The first major Allied offensive in the Pacific. ○​ After intense jungle warfare, the Japanese were forced to retreat, marking a significant Allied victory.  22.3 Holocaust Holocaust Begins ​ Hitler believed that the success of his plan for conquering Eastern Europe and Russia depended on the purity of the Aryan race. ​ The Nazis proposed a new racial order, declaring non-Aryan peoples, particularly Jews, as inferior. ​ This belief led to anti-Semitism, a key part of Nazi ideology, and eventually to the Holocaust, the mass slaughter of Jews and others. "Night of Broken Glass" ​ On the night of November 9, 1938, Nazi storm troopers attacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues across Germany and Austria. ​ Known as Kristallnacht, or the "Night of Broken Glass," this event marked a major step-up in the Nazi policy of Jewish persecution. ​ Thousands of Jewish-owned buildings were destroyed, and around 30,000 Jews were arrested and sent to concentration camps. A Flood of Refugees ​ After Kristallnacht, many Jews fled Germany in search of refuge. By the end of 1939, a number of countries such as France, Britain, and the United States had closed their borders to Jewish immigration. ​ Hitler later used the lack of immigration opportunities for Jews as an excuse to take more extreme actions against them. Isolating the Jews ​ Hitler ordered Jews in all countries under his control to be moved to designated cities. ​ In these cities, the Nazis forced Jews into overcrowded ghettos, segregated areas surrounded by barbed wire and walls.  ​ Despite the horrible conditions, Jewish communities in the ghettos resisted by setting up schools, cultural activities, and secret printing presses. The "Final Solution" ​ Hitler's impatience led him to implement the Final Solution, a program of genocide aimed at systematically killing the entire Jewish population. ​ The Nazis targeted not only Jews but also Roma (Gypsies), Poles, Russians, homosexuals, the disabled, and others they viewed as inferior. Mass Killings Begin ​ Nazi Einsatzgruppen, or mobile killing units, swept through towns and villages in Eastern Europe, shooting Jews and burying them in mass graves. The Death Camps ​ The Nazis built extermination camps equipped with gas chambers to efficiently kill large numbers of people. ​ Camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor became notorious for the horrific efficiency of their operations. ​ At Auschwitz alone, as many as 6,000 people a day were killed in gas chambers. The Survivors ​ By the end of the war, six million Jews had been murdered in Nazi massacres and death camps. Fewer than four million survived. ​ Non-Jewish individuals risked their lives to save Jews by hiding them or helping them escape to safety. 22.4 The Allied Victory The Tide Turns on Two Fronts North Africa: ○​ In October 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery defeated Rommel’s forces at the Battle of El Alamein, forcing the Axis to retreat. ○​ Operation Torch (November 1942): American and British forces under Dwight D. Eisenhower landed in North Africa and defeated the Afrika Korps in May 1943. The Eastern Front: ○​ Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942 – February 1943): ​ German forces reached Stalingrad in the summer of 1942 and began a brutal bombing campaign. ​ Soviet forces launched a counterattack in November, encircling the Germans. ​ The German 6th Army surrendered in February 1943, marking a turning point on the Eastern Front. The Invasion of Italy ​ After the North African victory, the Allies turned to Italy: ○​ Allied forces captured Sicily in July 1943, leading to Mussolini’s downfall. ○​ Italy surrendered in September 1943, but German troops continued fighting in Italy until 1945. The Allied Home Fronts ​ Total War: ○​ Allied nations converted their economies to wartime production: ​ Factories shifted from producing consumer goods to manufacturing tanks, planes, and munitions. ​ In the United States, automobile factories were repurposed to build aircraft and military vehicles. ​ Britain implemented widespread rationing and encouraged citizens to grow their own food through "victory gardens." ○​ Civilians contributed by purchasing war bonds, recycling scrap metal, and participating in civil defense drills.  ○​ Women played critical roles: ​ In the U.S., millions of women joined the workforce, symbolized by "Rosie the Riveter." ​ In Britain and the Soviet Union, women served in combat roles, anti-aircraft units, and as nurses. ​ Propaganda Campaigns: ○​ Governments used propaganda to boost morale and encourage participation in the war effort. ○​ Posters, films, and radio broadcasts emphasized themes of patriotism, sacrifice, and the need to defeat the Axis Powers. ○​ In the U.S., cartoons like those by Disney and Warner Bros. supported the war effort by promoting rationing and military enlistment. ​ Censorship and Control: ○​ To maintain morale, governments controlled information by censoring negative news about the war. ○​ Letters from soldiers were often reviewed to ensure no sensitive information was revealed. ​ Scientific Advancements: ○​ Wartime efforts led to technological breakthroughs, including radar, jet engines, and antibiotics like penicillin. ○​ The Manhattan Project, a top-secret U.S. program, developed the atomic bomb, which would later play a decisive role in the Pacific Theater. The D-Day Invasion ​ Operation Overlord (D-Day, June 6, 1944): ○​ Led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Allied forces launched the largest amphibious invasion in history on the beaches of Normandy, France. ○​ Despite heavy German defenses, over 1 million Allied troops secured a foothold in France by July 1944. ○​ Paris was liberated in August 1944, and the Allies pushed into Germany from the west. The Battle of the Bulge ​ In December 1944, Germany launched a surprise counterattack in the Ardennes Forest, creating a "bulge" in the Allied lines.  ​ The Allies eventually pushed back the Germans, depleting Germany’s remaining forces. Germany’s Unconditional Surrender ​ Soviet Advance: ○​ Soviet troops captured Warsaw in January 1945 and surrounded Berlin in April 1945. ​ Hitler’s Death: ○​ Adolf Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, as Soviet forces closed in on Berlin. ​ V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day): ○​ Germany unconditionally surrendered on May 7, 1945. The Japanese Surrender ​ Japan in Retreat: ○​ The Allied "island-hopping" strategy, targeting strategic islands, weakened Japan’s control of the Pacific. ○​ Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944): ​ The largest naval battle in history, where the Allies decimated the Japanese navy. ​ Japan lost four aircraft carriers, three battleships, and numerous other vessels, crippling its naval capabilities. ○​ Iwo Jima (February - March 1945): ​ This battle resulted in over 26,000 U.S. casualties and 22,000 Japanese defenders killed. The iconic image of Marines raising the flag on Mount Suribachi symbolized U.S. perseverance. ○​ Okinawa (April - June 1945): ​ The bloodiest battle of the Pacific, with over 12,000 American deaths and 100,000 Japanese deaths, brought the Allies within striking distance of Japan. ​ Atomic Bombs: ○​ On August 6, 1945, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing tens of thousands instantly and leaving many more to die from radiation. ○​ A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, with similarly devastating results. ​ V-J Day (Victory over Japan Day): ○​ Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. ​ Consequences in Japan: ○​ Japan was placed under U.S. occupation led by General Douglas MacArthur, who oversaw democratic reforms and economic rebuilding. ○​ The war's end also brought attention to the unprecedented destructive power of nuclear weapons, reshaping global military strategies.