Laboratory Equipment PDF

BIOTECH REVIEWER 2ND LABORATORY EQUIPMENT Laboratory is a room or a place equipped for the performance of tests, experimentation, and investigative processes. Medical laboratory or Clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information abou...

BIOTECH REVIEWER 2ND LABORATORY EQUIPMENT Laboratory is a room or a place equipped for the performance of tests, experimentation, and investigative processes. Medical laboratory or Clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in order to get information about the health of a patient as pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools used by scientists working in a laboratory. What is a microscope? Is an optical instrument consisting of a combination of lenses which magnifies the image of the object seen through it. It is used for the morphological study of very small organisms which are not visible by naked eye. Micro= small scope=to view Types of microscopes Simple Compound Electron Incubator Is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures. Autoclave is a pressure chamber used to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to high pressure saturated steam at 121 °C for around 15–20 minutes depending on the size of the load and the contents. Used to sterilize culture media, discard, and other equipments. Oven device used in sterilization. oven uses dry heat to sterilize. It used to sterilize items that might be damaged by moist heat (e.g., glasswares, powders, oils). Laboratory refrigerator maintenance and storage of stock culture between subculturing periods. storage of sterile media to prevent dehydration. also used as repository for thermolable solutions, antibiotics and serums. Centrifuge is an apparatus that rotates at high speed and separates substances of different densities. Balance used to measure an object’s mass to a very high degree of precision. Hot plate / Stir plate used to heat and stir substances. Water bath is a device that maintains water at a constant temperature. It is used in the microbiological laboratory for incubations. Biological Safety Cabinets is an enclosed, ventilated laboratory workspace for safely working with materials contaminated with pathogens. Bunsen burner is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating and sterilization. Inoculating loops and needles Inoculating loops are used to transfer microorganisms to growth media or for staining slides. The wire forms a small loop with a diameter of about 5 mm. The loop of wire at the tip may be made of platinum or nichrome. Needles are straight wires (no loop) used to pick up bacteria from closely packed colonies or to inoculate in a very defined area. needles commonly used to inoculate semi-soft media. Anaerobic jar is an instrument used in the production of an anaerobic environment. This method of anaerobiosis is used to culture bacteria which die or fail to grow in presence of oxygen. Glass slide and cover slip Glass slide: used to place specimens on to observe under the microscope. Cover slip: used to cover specimens on a microscope slide. Petri dishes often used to make agar plates for microbiology studies. The dish is partially filled with warm liquid containing agar and a mixture of specific ingredients that may include: Pipet and Graduated Cylinders Glass or plastic Used to measure liquid volume. Graduated in ml. Beaker Glass or plastic Used to stir, heat(if glass) and measure liquid volume in ml. Flask Glassware used to heat and store substances. Funnel aids in pouring liquids into small openings without spilling them. Test tube used to mix, heat or store substances. Test tube rack used to hold test tubes. Wash Bottles used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware. Filter paper special paper used to separate solids from liquids. Burette used to accurately measure and dispense variable volumes of liquids particularly during titration experiments. (volumetric, digital, electronic) PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS What is Cell? Smallest unit of living organisms that is capable of performing life functions. Cells can only be observed under microscope. All living things, including plants and animals, are made up of cells. Two basic types of cells: Cell Fundamental unit of life. Self replicating structure The first cells were observed and named by Robert Hooke in 1665 from slice of cork. Some organisms consist of a single cells = unicellular organism, others are multicellular. Cell theory Proposed by Matthais Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1839: -All living things are made up of cells. -Cells are the smallest working unit of all living things. -All cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division. Cell Membrane It is the outer lining of the cell which encloses all other cell organelles; also known as the plasma membrane. It supports and protects the cell. It also controls the movement of materials in/out of cell. It forms a barrier between cell and its environment. Cytoplasm It is the fluid substance that fills the cell. All the cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm maintains the osmotic concentration of the cells and prevents them from bursting or shrinking. Nucleus It is a membrane bound organelle, spherical in shape. Most of the activities of the cell is directed by the nucleus. All the cells in an animal has one complete set of genes in its nucleus. The genetic material DNA help in protein formation. Nucleolus It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it aids in protein formation and RNA synthesis. Mitochondria It is the power house of the cell. A spherical or rod shaped organelles and is enveloped by a double membrane. The mitochondria aids in conversion of glucose to high energy molecules (ATP) for the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum It is a large network of interconnecting membrane tunnels composed of both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. They play an important role in the formation of the skeletal framework. Golgi Apparatus They are flattened stacks of membrane bound sacs. It looks like the ER, and are located near the nucleus. Its function is to modify proteins made by the cell and pack and export proteins to the cell parts. Ribosomes Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. “protein factories” Together they help in manufacturing proteins for the cell following instructions of the nucleus. Vacuole A compartment covered by a single membrane. They are organelles for storage. Stores water, food, or waste for the cells. ONLY IN PLANT CELL Cell Wall It is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. Its main function is to provide rigidity, strength, protection against mechanical stress and infection. Chloroplasts It is an elongated or disc- shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. It is the site for photosynthesis in a plant cell. Plastids Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes. ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS Lysosomes A membrane bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes. They break down the waste products and detoxify the cell. Centrioles Are organelles that become prominent only during cell division. It functions as the anchor for the cytoskeletons. Similarities between Plant cells and Animal cells Both have a cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm. Both have a nucleus Both contain mitochondria Differences between Plant cells and Animal cells EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes was firmly established by the microbiologists Roger Stanier and C.B.Van Niel in their paper The Concept of a Bacterium in 1962. One reason for this classification was so that organism which was called “blue green algae” would not be classified as plants but grouped with bacteria. Prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle. The term has its origin from Greek. Pro - before Karyon - nut or kernel or nucleus. The first living organisms are thought to have been prokaryotes. In prokaryotes, all the intracellular water-soluble components (proteins, DNA and metabolites) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell membrane. Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed with membranes. Their name comes from the Greek Eu - well or true karyon - nut or kernel or nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, and in addition, some cells of plants and algae contain chloroplasts. 0 MICROBES What are microbes? A microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells. E. coli bacteria typically dwell in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. the majority of E. Either coli are safe or just cause mild diarrhea. However, some strains, like E. coli O157:H7 can cause vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and severe stomach cramps. The bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli for short) is crucial in modern biotechnology. Scientists use it to store DNA sequences from other organisms, to produce proteins and to test protein function. Bacillus subtilis known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, found in soil, the gastrointestinal tracts of ruminants, people, and marine sponges. Bacillus subtilis bacteria play an important role in veterinary medicine, medicine, and biotechnology, and the permanently growing demand for biotechnological products fuels the improvement of the properties of biotechnological strains. Lactobacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobes or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. Application of lactobacilli in food and feed biotechnology Lactobacilli are associated with food production because of the preservative action due to acidification, and/or enhancement of flavor, texture and nutrition. Fungi the industrial workhorses of traditional fermentations, are in the forefront of molecular biotechnology. These lower eukaryotes remain important models for basic biology and commercial manufacture. The yeast genome is the platform for discoveries in functional genomics and DNA microchip technology. Fungi, the industrial workhorses of traditional fermentations, are in the forefront of molecular biotechnology. These lower eukaryotes remain important models for basic biology and commercial manufacture. The yeast genome is the platform for discoveries in functional genomics and DNA microchip technology. Bacteria are common, largely free-living organisms that frequently only have one biological cell. They make up a significant portion of the prokaryotic microbial kingdom. Bacteria, which are typically a few micrometers long and were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, are found in the majority of its habitats. Much of the biotech industry uses bacterial cells as a key part of the research and production of biological substances including fuels, foods, medicines, hormones, enzymes, and proteins. The possibilities of biotechnology are virtually endless considering that we can even genetically engineer bacteria to program them to carry out specific tasks and output various substances. Pseudomonas is a genus with 191 known species of Gram-negative, Gammaproteobacteria that belongs to the family Pseudomonadaceae. Apart from their possible uses as biopigments and coloring agents, they also function chemically as effective redox agents and can possess antimicrobial potentials. Aspergillus is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide. Aspergillus was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist Pier Antonio Micheli. Aspergillus, one of the most important genera of filamentous fungi for this purpose, has been used as a model to understand different biological processes. Pseudomonas putida belongs to the fluorescent group of Pseudomonas species, a group of opportunistic pathogens that primarily cause nosocomial infections. P. putida is used as a biocontrol agent for the Fusarium wilt pathogen to control black root rot disease of tobacco. Thermostable lipases from P. fluorescents are used in the food and leather industry. Trichoderma harzianum A filamentous fungus known as Trichoderma harzianum is employed in the biological management of diseases brought on by phytopathogenic fungi. Because of its ability to antagonize plant–pathogens as well as stimulating plant growth and defense responses, some strains are used in bioformulation for biological control. Lactococcus lactis A common Gram-positive bacterium used to make buttermilk and cheese, Lactococcus lactis has gained notoriety for being the first living, modified organism to be employed for the treatment of human disease. Lactococcus lactis, a Gram-positive lactic bacterium, has been traditionally used in food fermentations. This expression system is also widely used in biotechnology for large-scale production of heterologous proteins. Virus is an infectious submicroscopic creature that only reproduces inside of live cells. All living things, including plants, animals, and microbes like bacteria and archaea, are susceptible to virus infection. Perhaps the most fundamental characteristic of viruses is their inability to self-replicate unless they infect a living cell. To reproduce, they must inject their genetic material into their target and commandeer the cell’s machinery. Burkholderia The genus Burkholderia is an extremely heterogeneous group that includes soil bacteria, plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria, and human and plant pathogens Biotechnologically, Burkholderia are well-known for their bioremediation and biopesticidal properties. Within this review, we explore the ability of Burkholderia to synthesize a wide range of antimicrobial compounds ranging from historically characterised antifungals to recently described antibacterial antibiotics with activity against multiresistant clinical pathogens. Cryptococcus neoformans The obligate aerobe Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and mammals. It is a member of the Tremellomycetes class. A filamentous fungus known as Filobasidiella neoformans is its teleomorph. It is frequently discovered in bird droppings in its yeast stage. Cryptococcus neoformans, an encapsulated basidiomycete fungus of medical importance, is capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and causing meningitis in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals. Cyanobacteria also known as Cyanophyta, are a phylum of gram-negative bacteria that obtain energy via photosynthesis. The name cyanobacteria refers to their color, which similarly forms the basis of cyanobacteria's common name, blue-green algae, although they are not usually scientifically classified as algae. The cyanobacteria Synechocystis and Cyanothece are important model organisms with potential applications in biotechnology for bioethanol production, food colorings, as a source of human and animal food, dietary supplements and raw materials. Saccharomyces is a genus of fungi that includes many species of yeasts. Many members of this genus are considered very important in food production. It is known as the brewer's yeast or baker's yeast. They are unicellular and saprotrophic fungi. It has been used in many research studies like cell cycle, apoptosis, gene regulation, regulation of gene expression, and neurodegenerative diseases. Staphylococcus aureus A common component of the body's microbiota, Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, spherically shaped bacterium that belongs to the Bacillota and is frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. Staphylococcus can show a great diverseness of environmental, medical or biotechnological deductions. Purpureocillium lilacinum A species of filamentous fungus belonging to the Ophiocordycipitaceae family is called Purpureocillium lilacinum. Insects, cultivated and uncultivated soils, woods, grasslands, deserts, estuarine sediments, and sewage sludge are just a few of the habitats from which it has been separated. P. lilacinum is used as a biocontrol agent for several nematode species, such as Meloidogyne incognita. Plant-parasitic nematodes cause significant economic losses to a wide variety of crops. Bradyrhizobium is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria, many of which fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation is an important part of the nitrogen cycle. Bradyrhizobium are Gram-negative nitrogen-fixing bacteria that occur either as free-living soil bacteria or in interaction with the roots of leguminous plants.