History of Science and Technology PDF

Okay, here is the conversion of the document into a markdown format. ### Middle Ages (450 - 1450 AD) This period in history began in 450 A.D. and lasted until 1450 A.D. It is subdivided into two smaller ages, Dark (450 – 1000 A.D.) and High Middle (1000 - 1450 A.D.) Ages. Major developments in sc...

Okay, here is the conversion of the document into a markdown format. ### Middle Ages (450 - 1450 AD) This period in history began in 450 A.D. and lasted until 1450 A.D. It is subdivided into two smaller ages, Dark (450 – 1000 A.D.) and High Middle (1000 - 1450 A.D.) Ages. Major developments in science and technology in some parts of the world during this period are as follows (Abastillas, 2006): #### China | | | | :------------ | :---------------------------------------------------- | | Agriculture | Farming largely began in Huang Ho and Yangtze Rivers | | and Economy | Large-scale silk production started | | | Bronze production became more sophisticated | ### Incas (pre-Columbian of Peru) Civilization | | | | :------------ | :--------------------------------------------------- | | Agriculture | Farming was practiced in terraced field with canals for irrigation.| | | Chili and avocado were widely cultivated. | | | Clothes from llama and alpaca wools were made. | | Astronomy | Decimal system of counting was used. | | | A calendar of 365 days was developed. | ### Scientific Revolution (1440 - 1690 AD) This period refers to the great scientific intellectual achievements that led to radical changes in scientific inquiries. Some of the important contributions to this scientific revolution are the following. 1. **Universe Model (by Nicholas Copernicus)** This describes the sun as the center of the universe, and that the earth and other planets revolve around it in circles. This also suggests that the distance from the sun determines the arrangement of planets and stars: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Stars. 2. **Law of Planetary Motion (by Johannes Kepler)** This states that all planets revolve around the sun in elliptical, not circular, orbits; and that closer planets to the sun move faster than the others. 3. **Work of Motion (by Galileo Galilei)** This involves the discovery of the relations among distance, velocity, acceleration and the law of inertia using a new scientific approach as follows: a. Definition of concepts b. Expression of the relationship of concepts c. Giving precise hypothesis d. Deduction of consequences from hypothesis e. Experimentation to test the consequences f. Analysis in terms of abstract and ideal situation 4. **Law of Motion (by Isaac Newton)** a. **1st Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)** It states that an object at rest will remain at rest and a moving object will remain moving with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. b. **2nd Law of Motion** It states that acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. c. **3rd Law of Motion** This law states that for every action, there is an equal and an opposite reaction. 5. **Law of Universal Gravitation (by Isaac Newton)** This law states that a particle in the universe attracts every other universal particle using a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely to the square of the distance between their centers. ### Industrial Revolution (1750 - 1895 AD) Industrial Revolution generally covers the complex technological innovations that led to the substitution of machines and inanimate power for human skill and human and animal forces, respectively. Some of these remarkable technological advancements are the following (Abastillas, 2006). | PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION | INVENTION | DESCRIPTION/EFFECT | | :--------------------- | :---------------- | :---------------------------------------------- | | Textile | Fly-shuttle | A spinning machine for increased weaving speed | | | Water-frame | Strong spun thread for ward | | | Rude power loom | For mechanized weaving operations | | | Cotton gin | For separation of cotton from seeds | | Coal, iron and steel | Use of coke for iron smelting | Non-malleability | | | Blast furnace | For cheaper and faster smelting of iron | | | Puddling furnace | For maintenance of low temperature | | | Manufacturing cylinder methods | For construction of iron bridge and ship | | | Open-heart process| Finer steel | | Transportation | Mile-long canals | Marked the beginning of canal-building era in England.| | | Steam boat | Could travel a 20-mile long distance | | | Macadamizing | More durable model of roads | | | Puffing Billy | Could pull 8 coal wagons at 5 mph | | | Steam locomotive with steam blast | Could run at a speed of 29 mph | | |Steam ship | Was able to cross the Atlantic | | Communication | Electric telegraph| For sending or receiving messages using electric transmission over wire | | | Telephone | For long-distance communication using wire and radio signals | | | Radio | For wireless communication using electromagnetic waves| ### 18th to 19th Century During this era, the connection between science and technology was very minimal. This gradually shifted to developmental stage during the 19th century when science, technology and industry united at a common ground and cause. Significant scientific advances during this period are summarized as follows: | FIELD | DISCOVERER | CONTRIBUTION | | :-------- | :--------------------- | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Physics | Charles-Augustine de Coloumb | Law on electrostatic interaction and frictional electrostatic instrumentation | | | Alessandro Volta | Cell or battery | | | Hans Christian Oersted | Idea that electricity generates magnetism | | | Andre-Marie Ampere | Ampere's Law to tell how electric current produces magnetism | | | Paul Erman | Made first measurement of earth's magnetism | | | Michael Faraday | Magnetism generates electricity | | | James Maxwell | Unification theory of electricity and magnetism | | | Heinrich Hertz | Discovery, detection and production of radio waves | | | Wilhelm Roentgen | Discovery of X-rays | | | Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit | First mercury thermometer | | | Benjamin Franklin | Distinguished negative and positive charges | | Chemistry | Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier | Made chemistry a science; performed combustion experiments | | | Henry Cavendish | Idea that oxygen combustion produces water | | Lighting | Gas lighting | Lighting by burning gas | | | Bunsen burner | Uses gas and air for an intensely hot blue flame | | |Electric light | Made use of bulb for lighting | |Agriculture | Seed drill | For even spacing of seeds in soils | | | Marling practice | For increased soil fertility | | | Stock breeding | Widely adopted by the agricultural sector | ### 20th Century to Date During the 20th century, science and technology had structurally and methodologically changed. A number of scientific theories were introduced and had influenced technological works in this century. The following summarizes the significant advances in scientific knowledge during the 20th century. | FIELD | DISCOVERER | CONTRIBUTION | | :------ | :--------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------- | | Physics | Albert Einstein | Theory of Relativity | | | Ernest Rutherford | Discovery of proton | | | Wolfgang Pauli | Principle on arrangement of electrons in an atom | | | Werner Heisenberg | Matrix version of quantum mechanics | | | John Dalton | Atomic theory | | | Joseph John Thomson | Discovery of electron | | |Humphry Davy, Jöns Jacob Berzelius and others | Discovery of new elements | | |Auguste Laurent and Charles Gerhardt | Pioneered organic chemistry | |Biology |Robert Hooke | Discovery of cell | | |Anton van Leeuwenhoek | Observation and discovery of microorganisms | | |Carolus Linnaeus | Introduced binomial nomenclature of classifying species | | |Mary Anning | Discovered first Ichthyosaur fossils | | |Georges Cuvier | Founded comparative anatomy as a science | | |Robert Brown | Discovered cell nucleus | | |Crawford Long | Use of ether in surgical operations | | |Wilhelm Wundt | Introduction of experimental psychology | | |Charles Darwin | Theory of evolution; presented in his book Origin of Species | | |Louis Pasteur | Vaccine against rabies | | |Daniel Hale Williams | Performed the first open heart surgery | | |Martinus Beijerinck | Discovered first known virus | | Biology | Erwin Schrodinger | Wave version of quantum mechanics | | |Paul Dirac | Relativistic quantum mechanics of electrons | | | James Chadwick | Discovery of neutron | | | Otto Hahn | Discovery of nuclear fission | | |John Bardeen | Theory to explain superconductivity | | | Murray Gell-Mann | Heavy subatomic particle classification | | |Karl Alexander Muller & Johannes Georg Beandrz | Discovery of high temperature conductor | |Astronomy |Edwin Hubble | Presentation of galaxies as huge aggregation of stars | | |Clyde Tombaugh | Discovery of Pluto | | |Karl Guthe Jansky | Karl Guthe JanskyRadio wave discovery from space | | |Georges Lemaitre | Publication of the original Big Bang Theory | |George Gamow, Ralph Alpher & Robert Herman | New version of the Big Bang Theory | | |Jocelyn Bell-Burnell | Discovery of pulsars | | | Neil Armstrong & Buzz Aldrin |First walk on the moon | | |Alan Guth |Inflationary universe theory| | |Fritz Zwicky |Detection of possible dark matter evidence| | Chemistry| Mikhail Tsvet |Paper chromatography| |--------------|-----------------|--------------------| | | Jaroslav Heyrovsky|Polarography| | |Phoebus Levene|Discovery of deoxyribose sugars of DNA| | |Neil Bartlett|Idea that noble gases can make compounds| | | Hugo de Vries|Idea of occurrence of mutation| | |James Watson & Francis Crick|DNA structure| | |Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer|Beginning of genetic engineering | ### Infomation Age **Medicine** *artificial heart; artificial kidney; blood bank; electron microscope; fluorescence bronchoscope; hemopump; laser; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); mammography; pacemaker; scanning electron microscope; scanning electron microscope; test tube baby; ultrasound or sonography; X-ray laser* **Transportation** *airplane; diesel locomotive; helicopter; jet engine; jumbo jetliner; spacecraft; monoplane and seaplane; space shuttle; supersonic aircraft* The period of human history typically described by the change from traditional industry to an economy based on information computerization is known as the Information Age, Digital Age, or New Media Age. It is coupled with the birth of personal computers. It is also the era with easy access on any piece of information (Stacy, 2008). Before the rise of the computers, information was being spread using print out materials. Johannes Gutenberg, a German blacksmith and publisher who introduced "movable type printing" in Europe, established what we called the Gutenberg era which is responsible for shaping the nature of society and its underlying institutions. This is where the Gutenberg principle is applied owing to the fact that during this period information was massively distributed but is much expensive and was established as part of an official organization or the principle could simply be defined as "the massive distribution of information in an expensive manner because it is institutionalized" (Stacy, 2008). * **The Post-Gutenberg World** This era can be described as the emergence of the internet and the worldwide web. This paved the way to the possible uploading and downloading of all forms of media instruments such as video, audio and images, and enabled people to publish or spread the information. Passing of information is much faster and easier (Stacy, 2008). The Rise of Digital Age With the advent of modern technologies, printing presses are not the only tools used in spreading information. Computers, cell phones, computer printers, digital cameras, etc. are now readily available to pass information from one individual to another from here to even faraway places. **Computers:** Discovered by Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer, and considered the "father of computers," computers were designed simply for computations/mathematical calculations and simple decision-making capabilities. The main-frame computers were large room-sized gadget that provide people data calculation and manipulation faster than the human brain. Personal computers also became available which gave every individual access to computers (Hughes & Hans, 2017). **The Internet:** Developed in California, United States in the late 1960s, the internet was mostly used by scientists to communicate with other scientists. The two people behind the creation of the internet are Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. It was a government-controlled project until 1984. The first problem encountered in using the internet, was the speed. The discovery of Fiber-optic allowed the billions of bits of information to be received every minute. Intel was one of the companies that developed faster microprocessor like i5 and i7. Using these kind of processors, signals coming from other personal computers were quickly processed (Hughes & Hans, 2017). **World Wide Web:** The World Wide Web (www.) discovered by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist, started in the 1990s basically for commercial purposes. Home pages were made by companies, business owners or corporation in order to promote and sell their products. Eventually, other items could be purchased online. Ease in shopping can now be experienced without going out to department stores. Similarly, many on line business owners can earn money through online transactions (Rice & Barman-Adhikari, 2013). With the use of the internet, one can access the following websites in the social media. **Electronic Mail or E-mail:** Several years back, it would take several days to receive a letter and it would also take a big amount of money to contact and talk to someone abroad. Communication was made easier through Electronic Mail or E-mail, the discovery of which was controversially claimed by V.A. Shiva Ayyadurai, an Indianborn American scientist and entrepreneur. He started building the system in 1978 when * Facebook - Facebook website was first launched in February 4, 2004 by a keen computer programmer, Mark Zuckerberg together with his fellow students in Harvard College and with other roommates. * Twitter - Created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone and Evan Williams, Twitter is another networking website where people post and interact with messages or "tweets" which are restricted only for up to 140 characters. * Messenger - It was originally developed as Facebook Chat in 2008 but changed its messaging service in 2010. It is an instant messaging service and software application. * Youtube - Today, Youtube is the largest on-line destination and the third most visited website. I hope this is helpful! Let me know if you have any other questions.