Human Anatomy Unit 3 Study Guide PDF

**Chapter 12** 1. **What is the difference between sensory input, integration, and motor output?** **Sensory Input: afferent, monitors environment & detects stimulus** **Integration: Receives all sensory input, make decisions, creates all motor output** **Motor Output: efferent, makes muscl...

**Chapter 12** 1. **What is the difference between sensory input, integration, and motor output?** **Sensory Input: afferent, monitors environment & detects stimulus** **Integration: Receives all sensory input, make decisions, creates all motor output** **Motor Output: efferent, makes muscle contract or gland secrete, targets effector** 2. **Know examples of the following:** a. **Somatic sensory: outer; touch, pressure, temperature, vibration, pain, proprioception** b. **Somatic motor: Outer; voluntary movement, skeletal muscle** c. **Visceral sensory: Inner; stretch, temperature, nociception (pain), hunger, or satiety(fullness)** d. **Visceral motor: Inner; Involuntary motor system, cardiac and smooth muscle** 3. **What organs belong in the CNS?** **Brain, Spinal Cord, Nucleus/Nuclei** 4. **What organs belong in the PNS?** **Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, Ganglion/Ganglia** 5. **What is the ANS?** **Autonomic Nervous System** e. **What are the divisions of the ANS?** **Parasympathetic NS(resting & digesting) & Sympathetic NS(fight or flight)** 6. **What is the difference between nuclei and ganglia?** **The location; Nuclei is CNS & Ganglia is PNS** f. **How are they the same?** 7. **What is the difference between neuron and neuroglia?** **Neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system** **Neuroglia is cells supporting neurons** 8. **Know the special characteristics of a neuron and definitions (if it applies):** **Longevity-last entire life Don't divide after birth High Metabolism-uses a lot of glucose & oxygen** 9. **Know the parts of a neuron and their functions:** g. **Chromatophilic substance (bodies): Rough ER (endoplasmic Reticulum) -- Free floating Ribosomes (AKA Nissl Bodies) -- makes proteins -- renew cell membranes** h. **Soma: Cell body of a neuron-- thickest part -- contains nucleus & most of the organelles** i. **Dendrites: have stimulus receptors -- create electrical signals that travel to soma** j. **Axon: creates electrical signals that travel away from soma** i. **Axon hillock: widest section, attaches axon to soma -- has a trigger zone that creates an electrical signal** ii. **Myelin sheath: not on all axons -- insulating layer -- faster signals** iii. **Nodes of Ranvier: only in PNS -- gap between myelin cells** iv. **Synaptic knob: most distal -- leads to a synapsis AKA Synaptic Terminal -- AKA Terminal Boutone -- stores and releases the neurotransmitter** v. **Neurotransmitter: a chemical that travels from one neuron to another from the synaptic knob into the synaptic cleft** 10. **What is a synapse? Junction between nerve and something else such as another neuron, gland, or muscle** k. **What is an axodendritic synapse? Know the specific anatomy.** l. **What is an axosomatic synapse? Know the specific anatomy.** 11. **What is a synaptic cleft?** m. **How does it affect the synapse? It means there must be a neurotransmitter** 12. **What are the 3 structural classifications of a neuron?** **Multipolar: 1 axon, multiple dendrites(most abundant)** **Bipolar: 1 axon. 1 dendrite** **Unipolar: 1 process(axon & dendrite act as one)** n. **Where are they typically found?** **Multipolar: in CNS as a motor or interneurons** **Bipolar: in special senses** **Unipolar: somatic senses** 13. **What are the 3 functional classifications of a neuron? Know what they do.** **Sensory Neuron: Afferent input, bipolar for senses, starts in PNS & ends in CNS** **Motor Neuron: motor output, starts in CNS and ends in PNS, multipolar** **Interneurons: connects sensory and motor neurons, only in CNS, multipolar** 14. **Know the functions of all 6 neuroglial cells and if they are in the CNS or PNS** o. **What makes the myelin sheath beneficial?** p. **What is the structural difference between the myelin sheath in the CNS and the PNS?** 15. **How is the gray matter and white matter of the CNS arranged?** **grey outside and white inside** 16. **What is the difference between a nerve, nerve fiber, and neurofibril?** **Nerve: cable-like organs in PNS** **Nerve Fiber: an axon** **Neurofibril: Bundles of neurofilaments. Keeps cell from being pulled apart.** 17. **Know the connective tissues that are a part of a nerve and their locations.** **Epineurium: around entire nerve** **Perineurium: around each fascicle (group of nerve fibers)** **Endoneurium: superficial to the myelin sheath/ surrounds each axon** 18. **What are the parts of the reflex arc? Know their order from start to finish.** **receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector** 19. **What is the difference between the monosynaptic reflex and the polysynaptic reflex? Know examples of each.** **Monosynaptic Reflex: 1 synapse, 2 neurons EX. Knee jerk\ Polysynaptic Reflex: 2 synapse, 3 neurons EX. Withdraw limb from danger (hot stove)** 20. **Know the difference between diverging, converging, and reverberating circuits.** Diverging circuit: 1 neuron synapsing with multiple neurons -- ex. Walking Converging circuit: many neurons synapse on 1 neuron Reverberating Circuit: Repeating (EX. Diaphragm) **Chapter 13** 1. **Be familiar with the regions of the brain. I will write it on the board.** 2. **What are brain ventricles?** a. **Where are the ventricles located in the brain?** **each cerebral hemisphere (lateral ventricles), around thalamus (third ventricle), and between pons/medulla and cerebellum (fourth ventricle)** b. **How are the ventricles connected?** **interventricular foramen, cerebral aqueduct, central canal** c. **Know the path of circulation of CSF through the brain from choroid plexus to dural sinus.** **Choroid plexus -- lateral ventricle -- interventricular foramen -- third ventricle -- cerebral aqueduct -- fourth ventricle -- central canal of spinal cord or the subarachnoid space -- arachnoid granulation -- dural sinus** d. **Where does CSF come from?** **Blood plasma** e. **What are the functions of CSF?** **buoyancy, protection, chemical stability** 3. **What is the arrangement of gray and white matter of the brain?** 4. **Brain stem:** f. **Which structures are in the medulla** g. **Which structures are in the pons** h. **Which structures are in the midbrain?** i. **What information is carried by the:** i. **Pyramids - tracts for motor output** 1. **What does decussation mean and what does that mean for the pyramids?** ii. **The superior, middle, and inferior peduncles** j. **What are the functions of the superior and inferior colliculi of the corpora quadrigemina?** k. **What is the function of the olive and pontine nuclei?** l. **Know the functions of the following visceral centers of the brain stem:** iii. **Cardiac center: sets heart rate** iv. **vasomotor center: controls blood pressure** v. **medullary respiratory center: regulates respiratory rate** vi. **pontine respiratory center: depth of breathing** 5. **Know the following parts of the cerebellum:** m. **Folia: external ridges of the cerebellum** n. **Vermis: connects the two cerebellar hemispheres** o. **Arbor vitae: White matter underneath the cerebellar cortex** p. **Cerebellar cortex: Outer layer of gray matter (Covers folia)** 6. **What are the steps involved when you need to make a balanced and coordinated movement?** **1. proprioception travels up spinal cord, through olive, through inferior cerebellar peduncles\ 2. cerebrum sends motor instruction through pontine nuclei, through middle cerebellar peduncles\ 3. Proprioception & motor instructions are sent from cerebellum to cerebrum through superior cerebellar peduncles. Now cerebrum knows which muscles to contract/relax** 7. **What are the parts of the diencephalon and their functions?** 8. **Know the locations of the following:** q. **Longitudinal fissure -- separates L & R cerebral hemispheres** vii. **(What would you find if you looked inside it?) - Corpus callosum and flax cerebri (dura matter)** r. **Transverse fissure - separates cerebrum and cerebellum** viii. **(What would you find if you looked inside it?) - the corpora quadrigemina and tentorium cerebelli (dura mater)** s. **Lateral sulcus - separates temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes** ix. **(What would you find if you looked inside it?) - insula** t. **Central sulcus -- What does it separate?** u. **Parieto-occipital sulcus -- what does it separate?** v. **Precentral gyrus -- where is it, and what does it do?** w. **Postcentral gyrus -- where is it, and what does it do?** 9. **What are the cerebral lobes?** **frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula** x. **Make sure you know which lobe contains the primary cortex areas. For example,** x. **primary motor cortex: Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe** xi. **primary olfactory cortex: temporal lobe** xii. **Primary Somatosensory Cortex: postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe** xiii. **Primary auditory cortex: temporal lobe** xiv. **Primary Visual Cortex: occipital lobe** xv. **Primary gustatory cortex: insula** y. **What are the locations and functions of** xvi. **Broca's area: Frontal Lobe -- Moving muscles for speech** xvii. **Wernicke's area: Parietal Lobe -- Understanding speech** xviii. **frontal eye field: Frontal Lobe -- moving muscle of the eyes** 10. **What is the difference between the 3 types of fibers in the cerebral white matter?** **Commissural fibers- go thru corpus callosum/ communication for both cerebral hemispheres\ \ Association fibers- from gyrus to gyrus/ stay in 1 hemisphere\ \ Projection fibers- to or from brain stem** z. **What is the corpus callosum?** **Band of myelinated nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain** 11. **What are the 3 main deep gray matter nuclei of the cerebrum?** **Basal nuclei- motor control (smooth movement)\ Basal forebrain nuclei- for memory\ Claustrum- occupation unknown** 12. **What are the limbic and reticular formation brain systems?** **Limbic- emotional brain\ Reticular- gives us consciousness** 13. **Know the layers of meninges, and any various spaces above, below, or between them.** a. **What is the correct order from superficial to deep?** xix. **Remember there are 2 layers of the dura mater, and you'll need to know where they are, too.** 14. **Spinal cord:** b. **What are the general functions?** c. **Know the external and internal anatomy** d. **Where does it begin and end?** e. **\# of spinal nerves?** 15. **What are:** f. **Conus medullaris: inferior end of spinal cord** g. **Filum terminale: stabilizes spinal cord; connective tissue strand from conus to coccyx** h. **cervical enlargements: upper limb nerve roots** i. **lumbar enlargements: lower limb nerve roots** j. **cauda equina: spinal nerves from** k. **denticulate ligaments** small ligaments from the spinal cord to the nerve roots, act as an anchor 16. **What is the functional difference between the dorsal and ventral horns?** **Dorsal horn- sensory only Ventral horn- motor only** 17. **What is the gray commissure?** **contains central canal and connects the left and right sides of the spinal cord** 18. **How are the meninges around the spinal cord different from the meninges around the brain?** **spinal cord meninges- 1 layer of the dura mater** **cranial meninges- 2 layers of the dura mater. Plus, in the spinal cord, there is an epidural space between the dura mater and the vertebral bone.** 19. **Know the names of the ascending tracts of the spinal cord.** l. **What are their functions?** **Spinocerebellar- proprioception\ Spinothalamic- somatic senses/ non-descriminative or crude touch (pain and temp)\ Dorsal column pathway- somatic senses/ for descriminative touch or fine touch** 20. **Know the names of the descending tracts of the spinal cord.** m. **What are their functions?** **Testospinal- muscles for auditory or visual reflexes\ Vestibulospinal- balance, equilibrium, and posture\ Pyramidal- somatic motor/ skeletal muscle\ Rubrospinal/ Reticulospinal- motor control** **Chapter 14** 1. **Know the definitions of the following nerve receptor classifications:** a. **Exteroceptor: external part of the body (somatic: skin, skeletal muscle, & bone.** b. **Interoceptor: visceral sensory** c. **Proprioceptor: limited to proprioception location: tendons, joints, ligaments, & skeletal muscles** d. **Mechanoreceptor: detect mechanical stimuli (ex. Pressure & touch)** e. **Baroreceptor: monitor blood pressure** f. **Thermoreceptor: thermoreceptor -- temperature receptors** g. **Chemoreceptor: detect chemicals/molecules (requires moist environment)** h. **Photoreceptor: respond to light/detect pathogens** i. **Nociceptor: Tissue damage -- pain** 2. **Know all 12 cranial nerves by name and Roman numeral and know their functions. I will write this out on the board.** **I.Olfactory Nerve- smell (sensory)\ II.Optic Nerve- vision (sensory)\ III.Oculomotor- eye movement (motor) extrinsic muscles- rectus muscle: moves eye in orbit\ intrinsic muscles- iris: pupil constriction or dilation ciliary muscles- changes lens shape (mostly for accommodation)** **IV. Trochlear nerve- eye movement only (motor)** **V. Trigeminal nerve- mixed sensory- facial sensation motor- chewing\ VI. Abducens nerve- eye movement (motor)\ VII. Facial nerve- mixed sensory- anterior 2/3 tongue (taste) motor- facial movement/ salivary glands** **VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve- sensory vestibular function- balance/equilibrium cochlea function- hearing\ IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve- mixed sensory- posterior 1/3 tongue (taste) motor- swallowing/salivary gland\ X. Vagus nerve- mixed (longest cranial nerve & 75% of parasympathetic functions)\ sensory- pharynx and epiglottis (taste) motor- ANA (swallowing)** **XI. Accessory nerves- muscles of the neck & some roots from cranial nerves (motor)\ XII. Hypoglossal Nerve- tongue movement (motor)** 3. **Know the nerve roots for the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses** **Cervical Plexus- C1-C4\ Brachial Plexus- C5-T1\ Lumbar Plexus- L1-L4\ Sacral Plexus- L4-S4** 4. **What is the difference between:** j. **Dorsal root: leads to dorsal horn, has ganglion (sensory)** k. **ventral root: from ventral horn (motor)** l. **dorsal ramus: spinal nerve splits to muscle & skin of back (mixed)** m. **ventral ramus: Spinal nerve splits everywhere the dorsal ramus doesn't forms plexus (mixed)** 5. **What is the phrenic nerve?** **Primary motor supply for diaphragm** 6. **Know the muscles innervated by the nerves of the brachial plexus:** n. **Musculocutaneous: bicep & brachialis (elbow flexion)** o. **Median: anterior forearm-\>wrist flexion\ lateral hand-\>thumb & index finger** p. **Ulnar median hand-\> pinky, ring, & middle finger** q. **Radial: posterior upper limb (elbow extension, wrist extension): longest nerve in brachial plexus** r. **Axillary: deltoid & teres minor (shoulder abduction)** 7. **Know the muscles innervated by the following lumbar and sacral nerves:** s. **Femoral: anterior thigh, quadriceps-\> hip flexion & knee extension** t. **Obturator: medial thigh, adductor magnus, adductor longus, gracilis** u. **Gluteal: gluteal muscles** v. **Sciatic: hamstring muscles-\> thigh extension & knee flexion** w. **Tibial: posterior lower limb** x. **Common fibular: anterior leg-\> ankle extensors** y. **Pudendal nerve: perinium** **Chapter 15** 1. **What are some motor functions regulated by the ANS?** **heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, urination** 2. **What is the difference in the anatomy between the motor unit of the somatic motor division of the PNS and the motor units of the ANS?** **Somatic motor division of the PNS- 1 neuron to 1 muscle\ Motor units of ANS- 2 neurons, 1 ganglion** 3. **What are the alternate names of the 2 divisions of the ANS?** **Sympathetic Nervous System- fight or flight system/ thoracolumbar division\ Parasympathetic Nervous System- resting & digesting system/ craniosacral division** 4. **Where are the ganglia located in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?** **Sympathetic- ganglion close to spine\ Parasympathetic- ganglion close to target (organ)** a. **How does this affect the length of the nerve fibers of the preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?** **Sympathetic- ganglion is close to spine so preganglionic axon is short and postganglionic axon is long\ Parasympathetic- ganglion close to target so preganglionic axon is long and postganglionic axon is short** 5. **Refer to Figure 15.3. Know what happens to the various organs during either a sympathetic parasympathetic nervous response. or** **Pupil dilation\ 2. Salivary gland (decrease in serous saliva)\ 3. Bronchodilation\ 4. Heart & breathing rate increase\ 5. Digestion organs are suppressed\ 6. Urinary function is decreased\ 7. Liver releases more glucose\ 8. Genitals= orgasm** **1. Pupil constriction\ 2. Salivary glands (decrease in serous saliva)\ 3. Bronchoconstriction\ 4. Normal heart & breathing rate\ 5. Increase in digestive functions\ 6. Urinary system stimulated\ 7. Liver stimulates glucose storage\ 8. Genitals= erection** 6. **What are examples of visceral sensations?** **-hunger, satiety -- stretch -- temp - pain** b. **What is referred pain?** **when visceral pain is also felt in somatic body regions\ Ex. right shoulder pain= gallbladder\ right shoulder pain=liver\ left shoulder pain= heart** **Chapter 16** 1. **Make sure you know the cranial nerve associated with each special sense.** **Taste: VII. Facial nerve (sensory), IX. glossopharyngeal nerve, X. vague nerve** **Smell: I. olfactory nerve** **Vision: II. Optic nerve** **Hearing: VIII. Cochlea function of vestibulocochlear nerve** **Equilibrium: VIII. Vestibular function of vestibulocochlear nerve** 2. **Make sure you know the location of the primary cerebral cortex associated with each of the special senses. This is also in chapter 13.** a. **Primary gustatory cortex = Insula** b. **Primary visual cortex = Temporal lobe** c. **Primary vestibular cortex = insula** d. **Primary olfactory cortex = Temporal lobe** e. **Primary auditory cortex = Temporal lobe** 3. **What structures are located in each of the 3 eye tissue layers (tunics)?** f. **Fibrous layer (tunic) = cornea: transparent & sclera: white of the eye** g. **Vascular layer (tunic) = choroid coat & ciliary body & iris** h. **Nervous layer (tunic) = retina** 4. **What is the lacrimal apparatus? system that produces tears to bathe the eye and drain into nasal cavity** 5. **What is the function of the ciliary body? changes lens shape for accommodation** 6. **What is the function of the lens? focuses images on the retina** 7. **What is the function of the iris? allows light to enter and controls how much light enters** 8. **What is the function of the choroid coat? keeps interior of the eye dark** 9. **What is the fovea centralisar? area of the retina with most visual activity/center of macula** 10. **What is the optic disc? AKA blind spot - part of the retina that has no photoreceptors & where optic nerve exits** 11. **Where is aqueous humor?** 12. **Where is vitreous humor?** 13. **Other than location, what are the differences between the aqueous and vitreous humors?** 14. **What separates the anterior and posterior cavities of the eye?** 15. **What separates the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye?** 16. **What is the functional difference between rods and cones of the retina?** **Rods- light and dark images Cones-colored vision** 17. **What are the functions of the following parts of the hearing and equilibrium systems?** i. **Auricle AKA pima -- funnels sound waves** j. **Tympanic membrane AKA ear drum -- turn sound waves into vibrational waves** k. **Auditory ossicles Transmit vibrations of the tympanic membrane through middle ear to oval window** l. **Tensor tympani and stapedius contract during loud noise to dampen the noise and is a protective reflex** m. **Auditory tube equalizes air pressure** n. **Semicircular canals dynamic equilibrium** o. **Vestibule static equilibrium** p. **Cochlea hearing** 18. **Know the order of the auditory ossicles and what they are in direct contact with.** **1. Malleus- touches ear drum\ 2. Incus\ 3. Stapes- touches oval window** 19. **Which fluid is in the membranous labyrinth and which fluid is in the bony labyrinth?** **Membranous: Endolymph Bony: perilymph** 20. **Trace the path of sound waves from the external acoustic meatus to the round window.**