Cognitive Process - Learning, Attention & Perception PDF

Cognitive Process – Learning, Attention & perception Learning Objective Define Attention Explain distraction Define learning. Describe the nature of learning. Explain the theories of learning....

Cognitive Process – Learning, Attention & perception Learning Objective Define Attention Explain distraction Define learning. Describe the nature of learning. Explain the theories of learning. Describe the types of learning. Explain the factors affecting learning. Explain the laws of learning. Discuss the methods of learning. Enumerate the application or uses of learning for health care professionals. Discuss how to ensure the learning becomes relatively permanent. Attention Definition Attention is defined as a process, which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment. Types of Attention Voluntary (volitional) Involuntary (non-volitional) Voluntary Attention Voluntary attention demands a conscious effort on our part. For example, solving an assigned problem in Mathematics, answering a question in an examination needs voluntary attention. Involuntary Attention This type of attention is aroused without the play of will or without making a conscious effort on our part. For example, we give involuntary attention to loud sounds, bright lights and strong odors, etc. ALTERATIONS IN ATTENTION (DISTRACTION) Distraction means any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws away attention from the object which we wish to attend. Sources of Distraction External factors/environmental Internal factors factors External Factors Noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavorable temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, defective voice of the teacher, etc. Internal Factors Emotional disturbances, ill health, boredom, lack of motivation, fatigue, etc. The nurse should take great care to get away all possible causes of distractions in working area so as to sustain attention.  Types of Distraction Continuous Distraction The distraction is continuous in nature. For example, the sound of radio played continuously, the noise at the market place, etc. Experiments have shown that adjustment to continuous distraction takes place quickly. Discontinuous Distraction It is irregular. For example, the hearing of somebody’s voice every now and then. It interferes with work because of the impossibility of adjustment. Some major means of removing distractions are: Being active in work Disregard for distraction Making the distraction a part of the work PERCEPTION Definition Perception is the experience of objects, events or relationships obtained by extracting information from and interpreting sensations. Factors Affecting Perception Sense Organs- Perception depends upon the sense organs or receptors, on which the stimuli act and sensory neurons, which transmit the nerve current from the receptors to the sensory area of the brain. For example, if cones are not developed in the retina, color cannot be perceived. Brain Perception- It depends upon the functioning capacity of sensory area and the association areas of the brain. For example, if the auditory area is destroyed, we cannot have auditory perception Memory Images of the Past Experience Memory images help us in the comprehension of the object or stimulus before us. For example, a child has come in contact with a horse for the first time. He has already seen a cow. When he is asked what it (horse) is, he may say it is a cow or like a cow. Cont.. Personal Interests and Mind Set We perceive those things quickly and clearly, which are concerned with our interests and mind set. Acquired Interests Our acquired interests also determine the object or objects, which we perceive. For example A person, who has a hobby of collecting stamps will quickly notice any new stamp on a letter Needs and Desires Our needs or desires also modify our perceptions. Besides these, our beliefs, opinions and cultural ideals also modify our perception of things, situations and objects  Errors in Perception Illusion - It is a misinterpretation of actual perception. When the interpretation of a particular stimulus goes wrong, it gives rise to a wrong perception or illusion. For example, a rope in the dark is perceived as a snake. Hallucination - Hallucinations are imaginary perceptions, in which one sees or hears something that is not seen or heard by others around him. An alcoholic may see “pink elephants”. Hallucinations are more common in mentally ill people Causes for Inaccurate Perception Defective functioning of Inadequate stimulus: Our sense organs: For example, receptors may not be stimulated myopia, deafness, anesthesia adequately, if stimuli were not or other sensory defects can strong enough, vague or cause inaccurate perception. indefinite. A very weak light or soft sound will make it difficult to perceive correctly Too many stimuli at one time: When too many stimuli are present at one given time, Poor health: Sense organs perceiving one stimulus cannot function adequately and correctly as a result of illness. correctly is difficult. For For this reason, the perceptions example, in the presence of of patients may be inaccurate. loud noises, , it may be difficult to perceive the call of a patient  Limited attention: If we try to apprehend more things than we can at a time, we are liable to have an inaccurate perception. Figure merges in the ground: Sometimes objects are perceived with difficulty because they resemble their surroundings. For Cont.. example, a white patch is difficult to detect on a white wall. The nurse learns to perceive sign of illness or wellness in patients only, when she learns what these signs are. Guidance: Perception is inaccurate, when we do not know what should be perceived. LEARNING DEFINITION “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice”. - Hilgard & Atkinson NATURE OF LEARNING It is a process. Leads to changes in behavior – May be positive or negative. It not only includes the acquisition of new behavior and change in behavior but also results in discontinuation of existing behavior. Prepares individual for adjustment and adaptation. All learning is purposeful and goal oriented. Learning is universal and continuous. Learning helps in the balanced development of personality.  Types of Learning Classical conditioning: Association between two stimuli viz. unconditioned stimulus (US), and conditioned stimulus (CS). Instrumental conditioning: Association between a response and a stimulus; allows an organism to adjust its behavior according to the consequences of that behavior. For example, reinforcement (positive, negative) and punishment Perception learning -Sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch are considered as the five gateways of knowledge. All knowledge is based on sense perception.  Verbal Learning- Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices used by the individual are the essential instruments in the proves of verbal learning. Motor Learning- When learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is called as motor learning. Learning to walk, swim, play throwball, piano are examples of motor learning. Concept Learning- A concept is the form of a mental image that denotes a generalized idea about things, persons or events. In learning a concept, an individual Cont.. tries to find out some common property in a group of objects. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Problem solving- This is a higher type of learning and it requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. Attitude Learning- Because of formation of attitudes, we show favorable or unfavorable responses to various objects, persons or situations. The individual learns a subject based on his attitude towards the subject. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING General factors a. Maturation – maturation level determines individuals readiness to learn. b. Age – the older the child the more patience in learning. c. Nature of learning material – easy or difficult. d. Practice e. Environment – the environment should be free from stress, noise etc. Ventilation, seating arrangement, lighting are very important. f. Gender difference – There is no gender difference in learning. g. Previous experience FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING..contd Physiological factors a. Sense perception – if the power of perception is weaker less will be the amount of learning. E.g. child unable to hear, vision problems. b. Physical health – e.g. fever, cold, pain etc. c. Fatigue / Tiredness – muscular and sensory fatigue can cause boredom. e.g. poor light, noise, unhealthy clothing etc d. Food and drink – poor nutrition adversely affects learning. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING..contd Psychological factors a. Mental health – mental tension, conflicts, mental illness and disorders hamper learning. b. Motivation and interest c. Success, praise and blame d. Rewards and punishments e. Intelligence LAWS OF LEARNING Law of readiness Law of effect Law of exercise/use Law of frequency Law of disuse Law of recency Law of primacy Law of purpose Law of association Cont.. Law of Readiness- Learning takes place best, when a person is ready to learn. Some sort of preparatory attitude or a mindset is necessary. If nervous pathway is ready for action, the response quickly follows. If it is exhausted and not quick for action, the response does not follow readily. Learner’s reaction depends upon the readiness of the sensory and motor neurons. Law Of Effect- A successful reaction gives satisfaction to the individual and the same reaction tends to be repeated. An unsuccessful reaction gives annoyance to the individual and tends to be inhibited. Law of Exercise This law is also called ‘Law of Use and Disuse’. Reactions are strengthened by practice. The use of any response strengthens it connection with the stimulus. Cont.. Law of Frequency- The law of frequency is correlated to law of use. The more frequently a connection is exercised, the stronger the connection becomes Law of Disuse- Any learning process, which is not practiced for sometime gradually decays. Disuse weakens the connection. Law of Recency-.The more recent is the exercise, the stronger is the connection between the situation and the response. The connection between a situation and the response is weakened gradually through disuse.  Law of Primacy- The first experiences and acts are novel and apt to attract attention. They are readily impressed in the mind. The first day at school, the first act in learning to solve a puzzle are easily impressed Cont.. Law of Purpose- With a clear or definite goal in mind, the student works towards a definite purpose. Law of Association- It is on the basis of association of ideas that we can explain, why one idea gives way to the other and so on. When we recall the name, we at once remember about its association, for example if we think of thunder, we immediately think of lightning, since the two often occur one after the other  Theories of Learning The learning theories are centered on the environmental influences on the learning process like associations, reinforcements, punishments and observations. Some of primary Learning theories are: 1. Trial and Error theory of learning 2. Learning by conditioning 3. Theory of operant conditioning 4. Theory of insightful learning 5. Observational learning Trial and Error Theory of Learning (by Edward Thorndike) Thorndike formulated his theory, based on his experiments conducted on his cat in the puzzle box. The door of the box could be opened by pulling the strings inside the box. A fish was kept outside. The cat was tried to come out of the box by squeezing, jumping, biting etc. As the experiment was repeated for several times the wrong movements decreased and in the end the cat was able to open the door in a single trial. Cont.. 1. According to him learning takes place by trial and error. 2. In learning the learner selects a correct response out of a large number of possible ones and connects it with the appropriate stimulus through trail and error. 3. Learning by this method is called trial and error learning theory. Learning by Conditioning (Ivan pavlov)g He experimented on a dog and found that food placed in the mouth of a hungry dog automatically causes salivation. In this case, salivation is an unlearned response, or an unconditioned response and the food is an unconditioned stimulus (natural). Later on, a bell was rung each time before the food was presented. Pavlov now found that the dog started to salivate at the sound of the bell and this was termed as a conditioned response. The bell is a conditioned stimulus (artificial stimulus). Cont…  Concept of US, UR, CS, CR Unconditioned Stimulus (US): produces response without prior learning (eg. Food) Unconditioned Response (UR): the response to US (eg. Food). This is not due to learning. (eg., salivation on seeing food). Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. Cont.. Unconditioned Response : A response that is natural and needs no training (Example, salivation at the smell of food). Conditioned Stimulus (CS): it is that stimulus which was previously neutral. It produces response after learning/ Classical Conditioning has occurred. (eg., sound of bell). Conditioned Response (CR): the response to CS. This is due to learning. (eg., salivation on hearing bell).  Uses of classical conditioning Shaping our behaviors Aversion therapy can help these patients by applying concepts of classical conditioning to discourage them from using that substance. Cigarette and vaping companies also use these concepts of classical conditioning in their advertisements. They want teens to associate smoking with being or looking cool.  Theory of Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner) Learning occurs due to the natural consequences of our actions. If a particular action has good consequences the action will be repeated. If the action has bad consequences the action will not be repeated. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. The two main reinforcement are: Positive reinforcement- Eg. Food Negative reinforcement – Electric Shock  Theory of insightful learning (Wolfgang Kohle) Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the solution, a flash of understanding, without any process of trial and error. In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule. All discoveries and inventions have taken place through insight  Observational learning (Albert Bandura) According to Albert Bandura a major part of human learning consists of learning through observing the behavior of another person called a model. Observation learning takes place through 4 steps: 1. Paying attention and perceiving the other persons (model) behavior. 2. Remembering the behavior 3. Reproducing the action 4. Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior  METHODS OF LEARNING 1. Learning by understanding the meaning. 2. Space Vs Unspaced Learning the material without giving any time intervals is unspaced or massed learning. Learning the material in time intervals is spaced learning. 3. Part vs. Whole Read the materials in parts. Read the whole material. METHODS OF LEARNING 4. Repetition Vs recitation Repetition is the primary necessity of learning. It Reduces forgetting and increases memory. Recitation is reviewing or rereading. It helps in permanent retention. 5. The will to learn and remember.  Learning theories can be used by healthcare professionals to teach patients or themselves to acquire new information and alter behavior. Application or Uses of Learning theories help us to understand the factors (internal & external) that may influence learning learning. Helps the healthcare professionals to understand that each individual may have different learning styles.  Learning is enhanced by organizing the learning experience, making it meaningful and pleasurable, and pacing the information based on the learner's ability. How to Practicing new knowledge or skills under varied conditions strengthens knowledge. ensure that the learning Reinforcement can help with learning. becomes relatively Transfer the learning beyond the healthcare setting to other environments. permanent? Learning cannot be assumed to be relatively permanent, it must be assessed and evaluated immediately and followed up later.  ALTERATIONS IN COGNITIVE PROCESSES Alterations in Attention- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. Alterations in Perception- Sometimes sensory interpretation goes wrong, so the resulting perception fails to correspond with reality. Such false perceptions are called perceptual illusions. Alterations in Learning- People with learning disorders have difficulty with reading, writing, mathematics or a combination of the three. Cont.. Reading Disorders Children with reading disorders have difficulty in recognizing and interpreting letters and words (dyslexia). Mathematics Disorders Children with mathematics disorders (dyscalculia) have problems recognizing and counting numbers correctly Disorders of Written Expression The condition is characterized by difficulty with written compositions (dysgraphia). Children with this type of learning disorder have problems with spelling, punctuation, grammar and organizing their thoughts in writing. References 1. Bernstein, D.A. Penner, L.A. Stewart, A. & Roy, E.J. (2006). Psychology, 7th edition.. Houghton – Mifflin: Boston. 2. Reddy, A N V. Essentials of Psychology for nurses.1st edition, Jaypee: New delhi.. 3. Sreevani. R. (2018). Psychology for Nurses. 3rd edition. Jaypee: New Delhi.