Unit 2 Arts, Literature, Culture and Scholars PDF

Unit : Arts, Literature, Culture and Scholars Arts : 64 (sixty four)Kalas (Arts) and 14 Vidyas (Techniques) of Ancient India Kala means performing art in Sanskrit. The mastery of as many of the 64 traditional arts known as the Chausath Kalas or Chathusashti Kalas, formed an important basis in the d...

Unit : Arts, Literature, Culture and Scholars Arts : 64 (sixty four)Kalas (Arts) and 14 Vidyas (Techniques) of Ancient India Kala means performing art in Sanskrit. The mastery of as many of the 64 traditional arts known as the Chausath Kalas or Chathusashti Kalas, formed an important basis in the development of a cultured individual in many parts of ancient India. It is believed that Bhagwan Krishna possesses these arts. After slaying of Kamsa and the thread ceremony, Krishna and Balrama went to the ashram of Guru Sandipani in the city of Avanti (Ujjain).There within a span of 64 days, Krishna learnt fourteen types of sciences (vidyas) and sixty-four arts (kalas), each of which would take a normal person two to two and a half years to accomplish. These arts are: Chausath Kalas (64 forms of art) 1. Geet vidya: art of singing. 2. Vadya vidya: art of playing on musical instruments. 3. Nritya vidya: art of dancing. 4. Natya vidya: art of theatricals. 5. Alekhya vidya: art of painting. 6. Viseshakacchedya vidya: art of painting the face and body with color 7. Tandula-kusuma-bali-vikara: art of preparing offerings from rice and flowers. 8. Pushpastarana: art of making a covering of flowers for a bed. 9. Dsana-vasananga-raga: art of applying preparations for cleansing the teeth, cloths and painting the body. 10. Mani-bhumika-karma: art of making the groundwork of jewels. 11. Aayya-racana: art of covering the bed. 12. Udaka-vadya: art of playing on music in water. 13. Udaka-ghata: art of splashing with water. 14. Citra-yoga: art of practically applying an admixture of colors. 15. Malya-grathana-vikalpa: art of designing a preparation of wreaths. 16. Sekharapida-yojana: art of practically setting the coronet on the head. 17. Nepathya-yoga: art of practically dressing in the tiring room. 18. Karnapatra-bhanga: art of decorating the tragus of the ear. 19. Sugandha-yukti: art of practical application of aromatics. 20. Bhushana-yojana: art of applying or setting ornaments. 21. Aindra-jala: art of juggling. 22. Kaucumara: a kind of art. 23. Hasta-laghava: art of sleight of hand. 24. Citra-sakapupa-bhakshya-vikara-kriya: art of preparing varieties of delicious food. 25. Panaka-rasa-ragasava-yojana: art of practically preparing palatable drinks and tinging draughts with red color. 26. Suci-vaya-karma: art of needleworks and weaving. 27. Sutra-krida: art of playing with thread. 28. Vina-damuraka-vadya: art of playing on lute and small drum. 29. Prahelika: art of making and solving riddles. 30. Durvacaka-yoga: art of practicing language difficult to be answered by others. 31. Pustaka-vacana: art of reciting books. 32. Natikakhyayika-darsana: art of enacting short plays and anecdotes. 33. Kavya-samasya-purana: art of solving enigmatic verses. 34. Pattika-vetra-bana-vikalpa: art of designing preparation of shield, cane and arrows. 35. Tarku-karma: art of spinning by spindle. 36. Takshana: art of carpentry. 37. Vastu-vidya: art of engineering. 38. Raupya-ratna-pariksha: art of testing silver and jewels. 39. Dhatu-vada: art of metallurgy. 40. Mani-raga jnana: art of tinging jewels. 41. Akara jnana: art of mineralogy. 42. Vrikshayur-veda-yoga: art of practicing medicine or medical treatment, by herbs. 43. Mesha-kukkuta-lavaka-yuddha-vidhi: art of knowing the mode of fighting of lambs, cocks and birds. 44. Suka-sarika-pralapana: art of maintaining or knowing conversation between male and female cockatoos. 45. Utsadana: art of healing or cleaning a person with perfumes. 46. Kesa-marjana-kausala: art of combing hair. 47. Akshara-mushtika-kathana: art of talking with fingers. 48. Dharana-matrika: art of the use of amulets. 49. Desa-bhasha-jnana: art of knowing provincial dialects. 50. Nirmiti-jnana: art of knowing prediction by heavenly voice. 51. Yantra-matrika: art of mechanics. 52. Mlecchita-kutarka-vikalpa: art of fabricating barbarous or foreign sophistry. 53. Samvacya: art of conversation. 54. Manasi kavya-kriya: art of composing verse 55. Kriya-vikalpa: art of designing a literary work or a medical remedy. 56. Chalitaka-yoga: art of practicing as a builder of shrines called after him.  57. Abhidhana-kosha-cchando-jnana: art of the use of lexicography and meters. 58. Vastra-gopana: art of concealment of cloths. 59. Dyuta-visesha: art of knowing specific gambling. 60. Akarsha-krida: art of playing with dice or magnet. 61. Balaka-kridanaka: art of using children’s toys. 62. Vainayiki vidya: art of enforcing discipline. 63. Vaijayiki vidya: art of gaining victory. 64. Vaitaliki vidya: art of awakening master with music at dawn. 14 (fourteen) Vidyas (techniques)( 4 Vedas+ 4 UpaVedas (abodes of knowledge)+ 6 Vedangas) 4 Vedas 1. RigVeda 2. SamVeda 3. YajurVeda 4. AtharvaVeda 4 UpaVedas (abodes of knowledge) 1. ArthaShastra: Ancient treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. 2. Dhanurveda: Science of archery 3. GandharvaVeda: Treatise on performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. 4. Ayurveda: The word ayurveda consists of the words ayus, meaning “longevity”, and veda, meaning “related to knowledge” or “science”. Thus Ayurveda is the science of life. 6 Vedangas 1. Shiksha: science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit, its aim is the teaching of correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. 2. Kalpa: art of rituals 3. Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyakarana. 4. Nirukta: art of etymology, particularly of obscure words. It consists of brief rules (sutras) for deriving word meanings, supplemented with glossaries of difficult or rare Vedic words. 5. Chhanda: study of Vedic meter in Classical Sanskrit poetry. 6. Jyotish: system of astrology, traditionally consisting of three branches: 1. Siddhanta: traditional Indian astronomy 2a. Samhita 2b. Medini Jyotisha: prediction of important events based on analysis of astrological dynamics in a country’s horoscope of general transit events such as war, earthquakes, political events, financial positions, elections etc; Vastu Shastra related matters, animals, portents, omens etc. 3. Hora: predictive astrology based on analysis of natal horoscope and the moment a query is made.  Naṭarāja– A Masterpiece of Bhāratīya Art, Nataraja, as this name depicts art and Natraja means king of the dance, the Nataraja statue is also a masterpiece in itself. The Nataraja statue is a remarkable representation of Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer. This iconic figure symbolizes the dynamic cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction, embodying the essence of Indian art and spirituality. The intricate artistry, profound symbolism, and historical significance of the Nataraja statue make it the best representation of Indian art, revered by devotees and art enthusiasts alike. The Nataraja statue originated during the Chola dynasty, which ruled South India from the 9th to the 13th century. The Cholas were great patrons of art, architecture, and culture, and under their reign, the creation of bronze sculptures reached its zenith. Symbolism of the Nataraja Statue The Nataraja statue is a profound symbol of cosmic rhythm and divine energy. Every element of the statue has a specific meaning, contributing to its depth and significance.  Ananda Tandava (Dance of Bliss): The statue depicts Shiva performing the Ananda Tandava, a dance that represents the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction. This dance symbolizes the eternal rhythm of the universe.  The Drum (Damaru): In Shiva's upper right hand, he holds a drum (damaru), symbolizing the sound of creation and the passage of time. The beat of the drum represents the continuous process of creation, emanating the sacred sound 'AUM,' which is believed to be the sound of the universe.  The Flame (Agni): In his upper left hand, Shiva holds a flame, representing destruction and transformation. This flame signifies the dissolution of the universe, making way for new creation.  Abhaya Mudra: Shiva's lower right hand is raised in the abhaya mudra, a gesture of protection and reassurance, symbolizing the dispelling of fear and granting of blessings.   Gaja Hasta: The lower left hand points towards the raised left foot, signifying refuge and liberation from the cycle of birth and death.  The Raised Foot: Shiva's raised left foot symbolizes the path to salvation and liberation, encouraging devotees to seek spiritual enlightenment.  The Demon Apasmara: Beneath Shiva's right foot lies the demon Apasmara, representing ignorance and ego. Shiva's act of crushing the demon signifies the triumph of knowledge over ignorance.  The Circle of Fire (Prabhamandala): Surrounding Shiva is a circle of fire, symbolizing the cosmic cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. This circle represents the universe and the perpetual motion of time. The Nataraja statue holds immense cultural and religious significance in Hinduism. It is not only an object of veneration but also a representation of profound philosophical concepts.  Symbol of Cosmic Balance: The Nataraja statue embodies the concept of cosmic balance, illustrating the interplay between creation, preservation, and destruction. This balance is central to Hindu cosmology, emphasizing the cyclical nature of the universe.  Representation of Shiva's Dual Nature: The statue captures the dual nature of Shiva as both a fierce destroyer and a benevolent creator. This duality is a recurring theme in Hindu mythology, reflecting the complexity of the divine.  Focus of Devotion: The Nataraja statue is a focal point of devotion for millions of Hindus. It is often placed in temples and homes, where devotees offer prayers and perform rituals to seek blessings and spiritual enlightenment.  Inspiration for Art and Literature: The Nataraja statue has inspired countless works of art, literature, and dance. It is a recurring motif in Indian classical dance forms, such as Bharatanatyam, where dancers recreate the cosmic dance of Shiva. Scholars: Adikavi Valmiki Valmiki is a sage of an excellent power of pen and wisdom. He is called Adikavi since the moment he cursed an hunter on killing Kraunch bird in a totally original chhandas. Narada advised Valmiki to write in the same poetic meter the life and deeds of Rama. Accordingly Valmiki wrote Ramayana, the Adikavya, in seven sections and 24000 couplets full of the most compelling imagery, idioms and metaphors, wisdom and nobility. He gave birth to a unique literary and philosophical masterpiece, one of the greatest works in world literature. Valmiki loved and respected life in all its splendour and diversity, the birds, the trees, the rivers, the seasons, forests.. Very little is known about the personal life of this sage except that before becoming a saint he was earning his livelihood as a decoit. One day Rishi Agastya met him and asked him why he committed such crimes. ‘To support my family’ replied Mrigavyadha the decoit. ‘Will they be sharing your sins also?’ questioned Agastya’ Mrigvyadha was deeply disappointed when he received the reply in negative by his parents, his wife and the other members of his family. Shocked and under deep sense of remorse, he started meditating and went into Samadhi. Ants built their nests around him and his body took the shape of an ant-hill. God Varuna feeling very much moved by his condition and his austere penance, washed off the mud and cured his wounds. Thereafter he was called Valmiki – arising out a Valmika - an ant hill. God blessed him and called him a sage. The fundamental teaching of the Ramayana is the sanctity of the institution of the family which is society in miniature. Ramayana is the source of many other works in other Indian Languages like Ramacharitamanasa of Tulsidas in Hindi, the Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali, Ramayana in Bengali by Krittibas, Ramayana in Marathi by Eknath, Kamba Ramayana in Tamil by Kamban, Mulla – Ramayana in Telugu by Mulla, Adhyatma Ramayana in Malaylam by Ramanuja Edutachhan and also in many other Indian and foreign languages. Maharishi Veda Vyasa Maharishi Vedavyasa is that famous a personality who outstands as a representative of extreme human intelligence and vast ocean like knowledge. He is known to be the grandson of the sage Vasistha and son of Rishi Parashar. He spent his life on Badri fruits only in Badrikashram and thus came to be known as Badarayan. He was born in an island and hence was called Dvaipayana. He was dark in colour and thus acquired the title of Krishna and since he classified the available knowledge of Veda into Samhitas, he got the title of Vedavyasa. His mother was Satyawati. Vyas not only compiled the Samhitas but also the eighteen Puranas. He also wrote Brahma Sutras and the Bhagwat Puranam – the touch-stone of human knowledge. He wrote Mahabharata – the great epic which is known as the encyclopedia of knowledge. It has been written in Mahabharata itself that one who knows the Vedas with all its Vedangas and Upanishads but does not know Mahabharata cannot be called a learned scholar (Mahabharata, Adiparvan, 2.235). This epic is not only a story of the battle between two groups of cousins but is an excellent code of moral conduct. It is a treasure house of anecdotes, subhashitas and a grand treatise on conflict management. It is said that Vyas dictated the script of Mahabharata to Ganesh who wrote it on bark leaves by breaking one of his tusks. Vyas is also a prominent figure in the Mahabharata. He was the father of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura. Vyas was born on Shukla Purnima of Ashadha month which is worshipped even today in Indian homes as Guru Purnima. He is worshipped as Guru because of his greatness and vastness of knowledge. It is said that this whole world is pervaded by Vyasa (Vyasochchhishtam Jagat Sarvam) and there could definitely be no better an adjective for him. Panini Panini is, today, recognised all over the world as the greatest model of human intelligence. Though India had a long tradition of grammarians but the final codification of Sanskrit language is ascribed to Panini only whose grammar has remained normative for its correct usage ever since. Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi is the oldest complete grammar available but the maturity, depth, and brevity, as found in it, is a proof in itself that this work is a link in the long chain of grammatical works. Panini himself has mentioned the names of ten grammarians – Apishali, Kashyapa, Gargya, Galava, Chakraverman, Bharadwaj, Shakatayana, Shakalya, Shonaka and Sphotayana. Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi contains 4000 sutras presented in eight chapters of four quarters each. It is remarkable that the text has come down to us intact without any interpolation. Ashtadhyayi is written in sutra style. A sutra has to be brief, precise and unambiguous. The sutras have to be interpreted within their shared context. Thus sutra is not an independent statement. Panini\'s many sutras contain references to a living speech. He has discussed the peculiarities in the usage of the language by easterners and northerners. The starting points of this great work are the famous Maheshwara Sutras in which the sounds have been broadly divided into three categories – Swara, Antastha and Vyanjana. These sounds have been presented in a remarkably scientific system. Panini\'s contribution towards formation of words is superb. He catagories the words in two main groups i.e. \'Subanta\' and \'tinganta\', and bases the verb forms on ten lakaras, three persons and three numbers, Thus every root can be conjugated into ninety inflectional forms and could take care of almost all the modes, aspects and voices. Similarly every Subanta could have theoretically twenty four forms based on eight cases and three numbers. The roots are grouped into ganas and the members of a particular gana constitute similar forms. The nouns are declined according to the last varna in a particular gender, Panini believes that the total sentence is an indivisible unit (Vakyaikyah) and the word is lame without its usage in a sentence. Sometimes nouns are also used as verbs. There are separate rules governing case - endings regarding the relationship of subject with the object and with other words used in the sentence. Panini\'s Ashtadhyayi has been the sole refuge for later grammarians like Katyayana, Patanjali and many others. As regards the personal life of Panini, it has been gathered from various external sources that the names of his parents were Panin and Dakshi. He was born at Shalatur village near Peshawar and pursued his studies at Takshashila University. His date could be fixed anywhere in 500 B.C. The saying that \'Sanskrit is best fitted for Computer\' owes its origin to the great sage Panini.  Patanjali. Patanjali’s Yogasutra is the main basic work of Ashtangayoga Philosophy. The eight angas are Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. ‘Yoga’ is the control of the senses and the states of chitta. When the mind becomes pure, the chances of its being ruffled by external disturbances are generally reduced. Patanjali’s Mahabhashya is yet another milestone. It is the first and oldest existing commentary on the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. Dealing with 1228 rules of Panini, it has remained supremely authoritative and furnishes the last and final word in all cases of serious doubts ever raised over grammatical issues. Katyayana wrote a number of vartikas to supplement Paninian rules but Patanjali proved their futility and supported Panini. In short, it is an encyclopedic work of this branch. In addition to this, it is flooded with brilliant quotations the number of which may exceed 700. The whole discussion is presented in conversational style of question – answer or objection – refutation etc. It is quite evident that Sanskrit was the spoken language at that time. The theory of gravitation has first been explained in Mahabhashya only. The work on medicines Nidan sutras or Samvediya-Nidan Sutras is also accepted as the real contribution of Patanjali to the science of medicines. Some other works attributed to him are Mahanada, Charak – parishkara, Siddhanta – sarawali, paramartha – sar and lok shastra. Patanjali belonged to a place called Gonarda which could be Gonda Pradesh of U.P.or a part of Kashmir. Nothing is known about his parentage. He received his education at Takshashila and taught students at Pataliputra. If Patanjali is accepted as contemporary to king Pushyamitra then he may be placed around second century B.C. Adi Shankaracharya Adi Shankaracharya was not just a philosopher or a scholar. In fact he was a man of amazing energy combining in him a mystic, a saint, a scholar, a poet and above all a practical reformer and an able organizer. Shankara was born in Kalady village in Kerala. Various evidences prove his date as 509 BC to 477 BC. His mother Aryamba was a pious devotee of Lord Shiva. His father Shiv Guru left him when he was only three years old. At the age of five only he had studied all the Vedas and Vedangas. Staying at Gurukul, he went to beg alms from a house. The lady was so poor that she could only give a dry Amla and she felt very sorry for it. Shankara prayed to Goddess Lakshmi who showered gold coins in the shape of Amla. This stotra a known as Kanakadhara stotra. At the age of seven he returned from Gurukul and wanted to renounce the world, but his mother denied. He entered a river and shouted that a crocodile had caught him and would only release him if he is permitted to renounce the world. The helpless mother granted him the permission for renunciation with the promise that he would perform her last rites. Thus Shankara left and on the way crossed rivers, hills, forests, towns, meeting varied personalities and limitless varieties of the creation experiencing the Brahman-the ultimate reality in every tiny living and non-living creature. He came across a cave in which Govinda Bhagwadpad was deeply engrossed in Samadhi. The cave was on the bank of the river Narmada and its flooding waters started entering the cave. Shankara adjusted a pot in such a way that the water could not enter the cave. Ultimately Govinda initiated him into Sanyasa and taught him the four Mahavakyas – Tat tvamasi, Prajnanam Brahma, Aham Brahmasmi and Ayamatma Brahma. Here Shankar attained Siddhis through Yoga and meditation and obtained super natural powers. From here he visited Kashi and from there went to Badari Dham and wrote the Brahmasutra Bhashya. From here he was proceeding towards Kedar – ashram where he saw Kumarila Bhatt trying to immolate himself in fire as a revenge for his own act of denying the existence of God. Kumarila requested Shankar to meet Mandan Mishra and make him his disciple who will propogate the philosophy of Vedanta. Unable to save Kumarila, Shankara went to Mandana Mishra’s house and defeated him and his wife Sharda in Shastrartha. Acharya Mandan Mishra got engrossed in the propagation of Vedanta. From here Shankar proceeded towards Shri Shailam. Here he got the news of his mother’s death and true to his promise, he went and performed her last rites. To establish geographical, historical and spiritual integrity in India he established four mathas in four directions of the country – Jyotirmath in North, Govardhan Math at Puri in east, Shringeri Matha in Karnataka in south and Dwarika math in Gujarat in west and established Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham at Kanchi as his abode. Shankara in the short span of his life (only 32 years), wrote Bhashya on Upanishad and Gita. He also composed 240 stotras, prakaran granthas, introductory books such as Upadesh Sahasri, Vivek Chudamani, Aparokshanubhuti etc., in all eighty books in number. Gargi Vachaknavi The great Indian sage Gargi Vachaknavi was one of the earliest symbols of feminism in the world. Born in the 9th to 7th century BCE, in Northern India, near Mithila, she was a natural-born philosopher. She was a renowned exponent of Vedic literature. Rishi Gargi’s knowledge and intelligence: The strong-headed Gargi had more intellectual and spiritual goals in her mind. She was greatly interested in learning the Vedas and Puranas. She was endowed with great intelligence and became proficient in the complex philosophies of all four Vedas. Even men who strived to be her equal in intellect could not surpass her knowledge in this field. Rishi Gargi as she is known is even mentioned in the Rigveda; in its Griha Sutra. Through her deep meditation, she revealed some of the mantras in the Rigveda. Her views on philosophy are considered so exalted that they find mention in the Chandyog Upanishads. Sage Maitreyi Sage Maitreyi lived in ancient India during the later Vedic period. She was considered as a great Indian philosopher. However there are two differing accounts of her identity. One account says she was an Advait philosopher and did not marry. The other story is that she was one of the two wives of sage Yajnavyalka. The truth seems to be an amalgamation of these two views. She is known as Brahmavadini, a scholar of the Vedas. Maitreyi was the daughter of Rishi Maitri and named after him. She was also the niece of Rishi Gargi. Maitreyi was born in Mithila in Eastern India at the time of the rule of King Janaka. From a very young age she was taught all the Shastras by her father and she was unattached to material pleasures and had reached the stage of high spiritual purity. Maitreyi is an icon for the present generation of women to follow as an ideal. She showed that it is important to be acquainted with self or Atma and love it, in order to be loved by others. She also showed by example how women can achieve the heights of knowledge; simply by listening to and following and practicing the path shown in the Vedas. Yajnavalkya, Yajnavalkya, sage and teacher who figures prominently in the earliest of the Hindu philosophical and metaphysical texts known as the Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The teachings attributed to Yajnavalkya include many that are representative of the break with earlier Vedic ritualism and are distinctive to the new worldview of the Upanishads. They include the first exposition in Sanskrit literature of the doctrine of karma and rebirth, which contends that the individual’s future destiny is determined in accordance with one’s past “knowledge and action”: “According as one acts, according as one behaves, so does one become. The doer of good becomes good, the doer of evil becomes evil.” Yajnavalkya also analyzes the nature and process of karma and identifies desire as the ultimate cause of all action and the source of continued rebirth. Yajnavalkya is quoted as saying that the true self, or atman, is distinct from the individual ego and therefore not subject to karma and rebirth; the atman is eternal, unchanging, and identified with the monistic principle underlying the universe, the brahman. Release (moksha) from rebirth and the attainment of bliss comes from knowledge of this identity between the true self and the brahman and is procured by “the one who does not desire, who is without desire, whose desire is satisfied, whose desire is the self.” Yajnavalkya is also the name of the author of one of the principal texts of dharma or religious duty, the Yajnavalkya- smriti. This is an entirely different figure, however, since the Yajnavalkya-smriti was written more than five centuries later than the Upanishads. Mādhavācārya. Madhvacharya was a 12th-century philosopher, theologian and reformer. He is considered the father of Advaita Vedanta, the most prominent school of Hindu philosophy. Based on the teachings of the Upanishads, madhvacharya formulated a comprehensive philosophy of nondualism that became the foundation of modern Hinduism. In his writings, he stressed the need for individuals to find their path to liberation and called for a revival of traditional values to restore spiritual stability to society.  Life and works of Agastya There is no particular date for the birth of Agastya but he lived from (1200-1500 BCE) and Ramayana it has been described that he lived in the Danka forest in the southern part of Vindhya Hills. The two twins were born Sage Agastya and Sage Vashistha and were celebrated as the two twins who were born from a mud pitcher. Work’s of Rishi Agastya Muni Agastya is known for his popular works which were “Agastya Samhita” and “Naadi Shastra” both these works were based in the field of he was strongest ‘medical’ and ‘astronomy’. Agastya is considered the father of medicine in Indian history among all the other streams. Agastya has been mentioned in all the four Vedas of Hinduism. The sage of Indian era Agastya has been mentioned in the Hindu epic “Ramayana” The sage Agastya’s story has been mentioned in one more Hindu epic which the second one “Mahabharat” The Puranic literature in the Hindu religion had numerous stories about Agastya which is more elaborate, inconsistent, and more fascinating. Many had mentioned him as the Saptarishi (seven greatest rishis) and others mentioned him as the eighth or eleven talented sage of Hinduism. Others Mentions of Agastya  Tamil texts considered Agastya the father of the Tamil Language. Saraswati Stotram and Lakshmi Stotram Salient aspects of Indian Mathematics/Mathematicians Aryabhata Aryabhata was an ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer who lived during the Gupta dynasty, approximately between 476 and 550 CE. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the history of Indian mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhata's contributions laid the foundation for significant advancements in these fields. Aryabhata's most renowned work is the "Aryabhatiya," a comprehensive text that covers various aspects of mathematics and astronomy. It is composed in 118 verses, each written in poetic form. These verses cover various aspects of mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, and trigonometry, as well as astronomy, providing insights into Aryabhata's profound understanding of these subjects. In the "Aryabhatiya," Aryabhata addressed the measurement of time. He calculated the length of a year with remarkable precision, considering it to be 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds. His estimation was quite close to the modern value. His estimations were quite close to modern values. Aryabhata provided calculations for the duration of a day, specifying that a day consists of 24 hours. He also offered insights into the varying durations of day and night at different latitudes. Aryabhata made significant contributions to the understanding of numbers and their properties. He introduced the concept of the decimal system, including the use of zero, well before it became widely adopted in other parts of the world. Aryabhata also explored quadratic equations and provided methods for solving them. Aryabhata's work delved into trigonometry, where he introduced the concept of sine and provided accurate trigonometric tables. His insights in this area were crucial for subsequent developments in astronomy. Aryabhata made noteworthy contributions to astronomy, offering explanations for the motion of planets and the occurrence of eclipses. He proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, with the Earth rotating on its axis and orbiting the Sun. The "Aryabhatiya" includes various tables related to astronomy, such as planetary positions. These tables were instrumental for astronomers in making accurate predictions and observations. Bhaskaracharya Born in Bijapur in Karnataka Works : * Sidhanta shiromani(“crown of Treatises”in Sanskrit) 1. Lilavathi (name of his daughter) * It consists of 277 verses * It is also known as Patiganita or ankaganita which deals with the calculations,progressions,permutations 2. Bijaganita * It consists of 213 verses * It discusses zero and infinity(that any number divided by zero gives infinity and the formula like,sin(A+-B)=sinA.cosB+-cosAsinB 3. Goladhyaya * It deals with spheres( The hundredth part of a circle seems to be straight. Our earth is a big sphere and that's why it appears to be flat.) 4. Grahaganita * It discusses the motion of planets and their instantaneous speeds * He stated that at its highest point a planet's instantaneous speed is zero On 20 November 1981 the ISRO launched the “BHASKARA II satellite” honouring the mathematician and astronomer BHASKARA CHARYA. `` Varahamihira Born : 505 CE,Ujjain. Died : 587 CE. Education : Astronomer,Mathematician. Period : Gupta Era Works : 1) He improved the accuracy of sine tables of aryabhatta. 2) He defined the algebraic properties of zero as well as negative numbers. 3) He was among the first mathematician to discover a version of what is now known as the pascal’s triangle. 4) He used to calculate the binomial coefficients. 5) Pancha-siddhantika. Books : 1) Brihat Jataka 2) Birihat Samhitha 3) Hora Sara