Indian Numeral System PDF

UNIT – II SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN NUMERAL SYSTEM – The indian numeral system has a long history. The origin and the evolution of the numbers could be traced from the time of the vedic period. Being an oral tradition, unique and unambiguous names were to be attributed to the numbers. Therefore...

UNIT – II SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN NUMERAL SYSTEM – The indian numeral system has a long history. The origin and the evolution of the numbers could be traced from the time of the vedic period. Being an oral tradition, unique and unambiguous names were to be attributed to the numbers. Therefore, as early as the rgveda time, the use of numbers and unique names prevailed. The concept of zero and its importance – Today, zero, both as a symbol (or numeral) and a concept meaning the absence of any quantity allows us to perform calculus, solve complicated equations, and to have invented computer operations using binary digits. Among the significant contributions of the ancient Indians is the concept of zero. The available evidence shows that the concept of zero was established during the period 500-300 BCE and fully developed in India by 600 CE. Ancient Indians were able to use a decimal system that allowed them to develop a method for handling large numbers. In this process, the use of number zero became inevitable as a placeholder: The number name to indicate zero is Sünya. Pingala a second century BCE Indian philosopher authored Chandahśāstra, which dealt with the metres used in Sanskrit poetry in which the word sünya was used, which obtained the mathematical connotation of 0. It later became its proper name as number. The concept of zero was established during the period 500-300 BCE. Ancient indians used a decimal system that allowed them to develop a method for handling large numbers. Brahmagupta developed a symbol for zero in 628 CE. With this invention, zero could be used as an independent numeral for computational purposes. The real power of zero was evident when the use of zero was beyond a mere placeholder Ancient Indians used zero in computations ahead of others and thereby elevated zero from a placeholder to a numeral. This is considered one of the greatest breakthroughs in the history of mathematics. Bhāskara II in his Bija-ganita introduced the properties of zero when mathematical operators such as addition and subtraction are operated on it. He stated that its nature does not change when numbers are added to or subtracted from zero. Place value of numerals – The use of large numbers requires a sophisticated number system. Otherwise, the journey towards handling large numbers and performing arithmetic operations will end soon. Ancient Indians' gift to mankind is a mature and complete place value-based numeral system. Decimal system – The universal way of dealing with numbers today, is through the use of 10 as the base. Another aspect of the Indian system of numerals is the use of a decimal system. As Bhaskaräcárya stated in his opening verses of Lilavati, his ancestors had already developed a place-value system in multiples of ten. This is indeed the decimal system. Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati on Decimal System and Place value – Bhaskaracharya, the celebrated mathematician of the 12 century CE wrote siddhānta-śiromani at the age of 36. Lilavati is the first of the four parts of this work that mainly deals with arithmetic, algebra and geometry. Since this is a treatise on mathematics it is natural that it begins with some definitions of number systems in vogue and units of measurement. The 12th verse in the chapter has a description of numbers from 1 to 10¹⁷ in multiples of ten. Each of these is identified with a unique name. What is also interesting is that Bhaskarācārya observed in the verse that this place value system was already in use by his ancestors. The numbers mentioned in the verse are given in Table 6.2 below: MEASUREMENTS FOR TIME, DISTANCE, AND WEIGHT – In the ancient Indian literature three fundamental physical measures for quantifying length, time, and weight are found. There are several sources in the literature specifying units of measurement for these three physical quantities. Notion of Paramaņu – Three generic measures pertaining to length, weight, and time could be used to measure physical entities. Time is the elapsed period for the light to pass through the physical entity, the length is the measure of the size of the entity and weight is the mass of the entity. At the smallest level, there is a fundamental measure called paramanu. Paramanu (Length): 2.88 x 10-⁷mm, Paramaņu (Weight): 5.79 x10-⁵ g, Paramaņu (Time): 1.31 x 10-⁵seconds. Measures for Length – Several measures have been in to measure the length in ancient times in India Arthaśāstra has elaborate measurements for length suiting different requirements. In the archaeological site at Lothal in Gujarat, an Ivory Scale was discovered. The total length this scale is 46 mm. The smallest unit on this scale was found to be about 1.70 mm. In 1930-31 Ernest Mackay discovered a broken piece of shell bearing 8 divisions of 6.705 6 mm (0.264 inches) each, with a dot and circle five graduations apart at Mohenjo-Daro". The interval of the 5 divisions, works out to 33.528 mm (1.32 inches). This measure is known as the Indus Inch. Two engravings (12th Century CE)  on a wall of the temple at Thirupukkuzhi (12th Century CE) near Kanchipuram, show two scales one measuring 7.24 metres in length, with markings dividing the scale into 4 equal parts, anu the second one measuring 5.69 metres in length and markings dividing the scale into 4 equal parts. It was found that each division of the first scale is equal to a Dhanus of 108 Angulas o 16.764 mm each. Similarly, the second scale is precisely equal to times Dhanus (le., equal to the circumference of a circle with one Dhanus as its Diameter). Measures for time – Time is a very important aspect of ancient Indians for several reasons. First, the ancient Indians were interested in studying the origin of the Universe, which is one of the five defining characteristics of a Purana. The notion of time becomes very relevant in this context and measures of time become inevitable. Further, studies pertaining to Jyotisa (Astrology and astronomy) also requires measures pertaining to time. The book Bhagavata-purana, discusses the origin of the Universe. As is evident from the table the smallest measure of time is of the order of 10-⁵ seconds and the largest number 10¹¹ human years. Measures for Weight – Excavations have established that balances have been in use from the Harappan period. The balances were made of copper or bronze pans and suspended in a metallic beam using cotton required to ensure verification thread. There is a continuity to these practices as evident from details in the Arthasastra. Arthasastra has a vivid description of various measures for weight. Some lower denominations of weight were perhaps used to measure precious metals such as gold and silver and gems. In addition to weights, there are guidelines for the development of 16 types of balances to be used. IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT – Hydrology and water management systems are extremely crucial for any agrarian- based economy, expectedly, there is a long history of developing good irrigation and waste management systems in india. Several archaeological excavations and some of the living dams and anaicuts provide a wealth of information for one to infer these skills of ancient indians. Water management systems in Dholavira – It is an important city in the Sindhu Sarasvati civilisation. The city was surrounded by a series of 16 large reservoirs (7 m deep and 79 m long) Recently, a rectangular stepwell was found at Dholavira measuring 73.4 m long, 29.3 m wide, and 10 m deep, making it three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro. Sanchi - a well- known UNESCO World Heritage site in Madhya Pradesh, and four other known Buddhist sites of Morel-Khurd, Sonari, Satdhara, and Andher, all established between 300 and 200 BCE. The heights of the dams ranged from 1 metre to 6 metres and their lengths from 80 to 1400 metres. The sanchi dams and another well-known sudarshana dam in gujrat were equipped with spillways suggesting that flood protection while designing these structures.  Ahar-Pyne system – Mauryans had developed a concept for rainwater harvesting and irrigation management, known as the Ahar-Pyne system which is still practiced in the regions of southern Bihar and Chhota Nagpur. The Pynes are constructed channels to utilise the river water flowing through the hilly regions, whereas the Ahars are catchments with embankments to store rainwater and the water released from the Pynes. The Pynes feed many Ahars and several distributaries are then constructed for irrigating the field. The Ahar-Pyne system also works as a flood mitigation system. The Government of Bihar has taken up renovation of the traditional water bodies (Ahar- Pyne system) under the Jal Jeevan Hariyali program in 2020. This shows how robust and useful is this ancient system for water harvesting even in modern times. Stepwells – Another ancient Indian system for water management is the construction of stepwells. Stepwells are primarily water storage systems that were developed in India, primarily to cope with seasonal fluctuations in water availability. They are commonly found in western India (mainly Gujarat and Rajasthan). The earliest archaeological evidence of wells provided with steps is found at Dholavira. Mohenjo- Daro's great bath also has steps in opposite directions, similar to a stepwell construction. The Aparajita-precha, a canonical text on art and architecture from Gujarat written in Sanskrit has details on the construction and ornamentation of stepwells" is one of the deepest and largest stepwells in India. DYES AND PAINTING TECHNOLOGY – Human beings essentially love colors. Adding color to life both in a figurative and real sense is a long-time pre-occupation of human beings. People in ancient India had knowledge of the properties of different coloring agents and the technique of using dyes. They were using bath organic and inorganic substances for these purposes. Dyeing wool or silk is easier since they have both basic and acidic properties and are proteins. On the other hand, dyeing cotton is difficult and it requires substances known as mordants, capable of penetrating and staying in the fibers. Pigments on the other hand are coloring agents. The use of these substances is also found in the ancient Indian society. In Buddhist literature, the Vinaya texts describe six sources of dyes: roots, trunks, barks, leaves, flowers, and fruits of trees. Ancient Indians knew the art of selecting colors and mixing them to achieve different shades. According to vişnu-dharmottara-purana, most common colours were white, red, yellow, black and blue. The art of painting was well known in ancient India ana that people know the technique of preparing pigments, mixing colours to get shades of their choice for painting beautiful pictures. The Ajanta paintings employed extracts of plants and minerals in preparing pigments. Preparing a Wall for Painting – The process of preparing adamantine for application on a wall as a coating in preparation for painting is described in the text Šivatattva-ratnakara. The process is as follows. Fresh buffalo hide is to be boiled with water until it becomes a sticky  butter-like paste. This is cut into small pieces and dried till the pieces become hard. This is the basic formulation for adamantine (known as Vajralepa) and is useful for preparing the initial coating on the wall to make it smooth and amenable for painting pictures. Sometimes it is required to add some pigments so that it can be used as paints. VASTU-SASTRA - THE SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE – Västu-śāstra often evokes certain imagination in our minds that it is about building a house or an office complex and locating the rooms in appropriate directions. This is an oversimplified understanding and a misleading perspective. If we study the Västu- śāstra texts we notice that it deals with town planning, design of unitary structures including temples and residential houses, sculpture, painting, and furniture. Therefore, Västu-śāstra, also known as Västu-vidya or Šilpa-śāstra, taken in the broadest context implies the science related to artistic creations through design, fabrication, and construction. The modern-day equivalent term is architecture. In the Västu-śāstra four things are considered as vastu : the earth or the ground (bhūmi), temple or a palace (prāsāda), conveyance (yana) and couch (śayana). Of these, bhūmi is considered the primary one and is described first in the vastu texts. Vāstu-śāstrā is essentially an art of correct setting whereby one can align the proposed structure to the pañca-bhūtas, and the rotational influence of the sun, moon, and the other planets surrounding the earth. TOWN PLANNING - Villages are the basic units of human inhabitation. The other elements are towns, forts, the capital city, and military cantonments. Alternative designs for these, choice of an appropriate site for developing these infrastructures, the details of land use patterns (zoning of a village or a town for different uses), etc. Are often discussed in detail in all västu texts. Civil Architecture: Västu-śāstra discusses the design and construction of unitary structures such as houses, palaces, temples, and public utilities. These can be segregated into civil and temple architecture. The civil architecture includes the design of a royal palace, houses for different sections of the society, forts, and public buildings such as sabhäs (meeting halls), theatre, library, health centre, and other public infrastructures. Temple Architecture: Elaborate plans and designs for the construction of temples are discussed in all västu texts. This also includes descriptions of various components of a temple such as mandapa, garbhagtha, šikhara, and stúpi and the relative proportions to be adopted. Another related issue discussed in Västu-šāstra is iconography. This addresses the issues of making the idols of Gods and Goddesses that occupy the temples. Artistic creations : the västu-sästra also deals with certain aesthetical elements that are part of the above infrastructure. For example, temples and public halls have paintings and different sculptures (other than the gods and goddesses). Details on the design of these are part of västu-šāstra. Furthermore, other artistic elements such as furniture, sleeping couches, and doors are also subject matter for discussion in västu-śāstra. Other Issues: In addition to this, the qualifications of a Sthapati (the chief architect), his team of workers, and their roles are discussed in västu texts. Another issue that relates to the choice of building materials (such as wood). Finally, a generic framework for site planning known as Västu-puruşa-mandala is discussed as the basic design mechanism to layout different components of a proposed structure. This applies to all types of architectural endeavours (Town planning, temple, and civil architecture). Literary Sources - The subject of vastu is discussed in several literary sources in the country. In the Atharvaveda references to different parts of the building such as sitting- room, inner apartment, room for sacred fire, cattle shed, and reception room is found. There are literary works that deal exclusively with the subject of Västu-sästra. Table has a list of major texts and issues covered in them. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – (Temple (Prāsāda) is an important element of vastu-śāstra as the building of temples is considered important by the kings and wealthy individuals. Temples present a style that has a precise and harmonious geometry when viewed from all four sides and above. The structure has a square form and grid ground plans, tall towers, and rich and elaborate sculptures decorating the wall and the towers. These depictions present a variety of themes and stories from the Puranic lore. It also depicts animals and floral and geometric patterns. Although the temple architecture is found throughout the Indian sub-continent, there are distinctive regional styles found. The north Indian style of temple architecture is known as Nägara and the South Indian style, Dravida. The vastu texts have considerably discussed several aspects of temple building of these styles. This includes the components of a temple, the type of temple designs, various structural elements in the temple, iconography for the idols, and the laying out of the temple complex using the Västu-puruşa-mandala. From an architectural perspective the components of the temple are as follows: Garbhagrha - is the womb or epicentre of the temple, where the presiding deity is to be placed (the sanctum sanctorum). All other structural components of the temple are placed in relation to this. The positioning of the garbhagrha is established using the Västu-puruşa-mandala. Mandapa - is the pavilion structure in front of garbhagrha. There could be a few of them beginning with the Mukha-mandapa (entry pavilion), Ardha-mandapa (front pavilion), and Mahā-mandapa (main pavilion). The mandapas are pillared structures of varying numbers and sizes. The mandapas in South Indian temples are classified according to the number of pillars. Präkära - is the open space for circumambulation (pradaksiņa) around the garbhagrha. There could be one or more such parallel structures designed depending on the overall size and span of the temple superstructure. Viewing the temple from an elevated view, one can identify distinctive elements that make up the structure. These include the following: Adhisthāna - is the base platform on which the entire superstructure rests. In addition to the foundation deposit, it can have a raised platform (socle) on which the rest of the structure is established. Various designs for the profile of the socle have been proposed in the vastu texts. Stambha- pillars that support various structures and provide the basis for developing the elevation for the temple. Prastara - is the entablature in the temple structure. Temples are typically multi- storeyed (varying from one to 16 storeys) and the prastara contributes to the substantive part of this. The ground floor is the only habitable storey. Śikhara - is the superstructure, often a tower-like infrastructure that is built above the garbhagrha. This forms the main elevation to the temple. In the South Indian temples, the superstructure over the garbhagrha is called Vimana and the dome- shaped cupola at the top of it is called śikhara. Stūpi - is the finjal to the structure.  Temples in India: Marvellous Stone Architecture for Eternity – The temples built in India were mostly stone structures and possessed many unique features that were difficult to fathom today. It required several concepts spanning Mathematics, Astronomy, Building Science, Supply Chain Management, Rock cutting technology, Optics, and Sound engineering. A few examples will help us understand the high level of sophistication with which the architectural aspects of the temples were addressed. The Brhadīśvara Temple in Thanjavur was built 1000 years back using granite. The vimana (tower), a 99-feet structure above the sanctum is one of the tallest in South India. The temple was laid out on a precise plan of 16x16 squares, a design known as Padma-garbha-mandala in the Dravida architecture of southern India. The śikhara, a dome weighing 25 tons rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons, atop the tower. There is no supply of granite in the vicinity of the temple site (about 60 km). It is not clear how the stones were sourced and conveyed to the top of the tower. There are musical pillars in the mandapa. This requires carving the stones so that the sound frequency is properly established. Several Indian temples have musical pillars. Furthermore, this temple has been a stable structure for 1000 years. In contrast, the leaning tower of Pisa began to lean during its construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight. The Sun Temple at Konark was built of stone in 1250 CE in the form of a gigantic chariot dedicated to the Sun God. The minute and beautiful carvings that characterize the architecture of the temple show its grandeur in iconography. There are 24 elaborately carved stone wheels (symbolizing 24 paksas in a year) each of about 12 feet diameter. The seven horses are at the front, symbolically pulling the chariot. The original temple had a vimāna, which is estimated to be 229 feet tall. The main vimāna fell in 1837. The wheels of the temple are sundials, which can be used to calculate time accurately to a minute. The placement of the main temple and the Sun God had been aligned in such a way that the first ray of the Sun from the coast would cross the Nata Mandir (Dancing Hall) and would fall and reflect from the diamond placed at the crown of the Sun God. Apart from the other challenges of building a massive stone- carved structure, knowledge of astronomy is also required to build such a temple. One of the most spectacular monuments in the world is the Kailasa Temple in Ellora, which is the largest rock-cut structure anywhere. The cave temples of Ellora extol the spirit of co-existence characteristic of Indian civilization by co-locating temples devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism in one place. The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16 in Ellora) was built by Krşņa I, a Rashtrakuta King. It is notable for its vertical excavation-carvers started at the top of the original rock and excavated downward. According to a UNESCO report, "it is one of the most remarkable of all cave temples in India on account of its striking proportion, elaborate workmanship of architectural members, and sculptural treatment. Furthermore, this temple is decorated with some of the boldest and finest sculpture compositions to be found in India. In the Rang Mahal of this sabhā-mandapa are preserved some beautiful paintings belonging to two different periods."  Granite is difficult to carve even with iron or steel tools. One wonders how very intricate carvings were made in Indian temples built during 600 CE to 1600 CE. MINING AND ORE EXTRACTION – In technology, ancient Indian's contributions to metalworking, metallurgy, and material science are noteworthy. Indian metalsmiths had notable achievements, particularly developing unique skills in mining and working with iron and steel, copper and its alloys, and zinc. Archaeological examination of the vicinity of the major mining centres of modern India viz, Zawar, Rajpura- Dariba, Rampura-Agucha, Khetri, Chamba, Deri-Ambaji, Singhbhum, Chitradurga, and Cudappah presents an interesting picture. These locations have extensive ancient mine workings and debris, and heaps of slags and retorts. Furthermore, a study of the ruins of temples and townships in various places in India corroborates the degree to which mining, and metalworking have developed in ancient India. METALS AND METALWORKING TECHNOLOGY – In modern times metals and alloys play an important role in our lives. Several engineering gadgets and equipment make use of a variety of metals and their alloys. Ancient Indians have made use of base metals and alloys in multiple ways. This includes the making of military aids, ornaments, vessels, tools, artefacts, statues, and coins to name a few. In particular, Indians were known to be quite advanced in iron and steel, and zinc. The archaeological findings of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as well as in burial sites in South India have artefacts in Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze. The bronze statue of a dancing girl found at Mohenjo-Daro bears testimony to the technological skills of the ancient craftsmen. The statue is evidence of the skills of the craftsmen in drilling fine holes and casting the statue using the lost wax process (known in modern times as the cire-perdue process), In the Vedic texts, we find ample references to Gold, Silver, iron, copper, and their alloys". Therefore, it is not surprising to find that mining, ore processing, extraction of metals, methods for metalworking, and alloying were known to them. In this section, we will see in more detail the above aspects of Indian metalworking and metallurgical principles. A detailed study of the archaeological remains and the repository of literary works from 5th century CE to 12th century CE, in addition to numerous references in the Vedic texts, clearly point to certain unique aspects of metalworking and metallurgy in India during ancient and medieval times. Some of them include the following: * The smelters and metalsmiths had gained a high degree of knowledge regarding furnace design, combustion of fuel, refractories, and skill in operating the furnaces at the desired temperature. They were also aware of the temperature specifications and other conditions required to carry out the process. * The knowledge of the Indian metal smiths on Iron-Carbon alloy was clearly superior and ahead of the times. This is evident from their ability to produce the famous wootz steel, which was in demand in the West.  * Indians were the first to introduce Zinc to human civilisation and also to develop Cu- Zn alloys. * The Indian metal smiths were also adept in alloy technology as they could produce alloys of controlled composition. Indians developed good skills in designing and casting a variety of artefacts and deployed good moulding and diecasting methods. The available evidence suggests that they were casting small as well as large objects in the country. Hg, as well as HgS, have been extensively used in the preparation of Ayurvedic medicines. Hg is also used for the amalgamation process for the extraction of Silver and Gold. Gold Extraction Process - The process for the extraction of gold in ancient times has been analysed and documented by Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. According to the available information, mercury was added to a mixture of black sand and gold ore, and the mixture was rubbed with a little common salt. After some time, the gold and mercury would form an amalgam. The amalgam is separated by adding water to the mixture and agitating the mixture. The amalgam was rolled in a damp rag and the mercury. was squeezed off. Finally, it was burnt in the fire to extract the gold. If the gold was found alloyed with silver or other base metals, it was hammered into a thin sheet between two stones. The plate was burnt in a two-layered cow-dung. The cow dung absorbed the base metals, and the pure gold was separated. This shows that the technique of Hg (Mercury) amalgamation and gilding were apparently known to the Indian craftsmen from the very early times. However, the most common process of separation of native gold from the sand and quarta rock employs a simple gravity separation or panning. In this process, the quartz is first crushed to a fine size to extract the gold particle and then separate it by suspending the mixture in water. When the pan containing the suspension is agitated under water gold particles settle at the bottom of the pan and the sand and soil are washed away. In the case of a larger scale of operation, big pans were suspended in the river water through a sling so that the mixture could be easily agitated. IRON AND STEEL IN INDIA – Ancient specimens of iron are widely available in India which will convince anyone that India has always been a rich iron-producing country. A host of archaeological excavations firmly establish that ancient Indians were well aware of the use of iron. Indians manufactured massive Iron objects during the Christian era, which were much ahead of the times. The iron pillar at Qutub Minar (in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi) which weighs about 6,000 kg is well known, but other iron pillars, viz the one at Dhar (12th century CE) which weighs 7,000 kg and is nearly twice as big as the Iron Pillar of Delhi in Qutub Complex, and another on Mount Abu, which is less known.  Another notable example is the 29 iron beams in the Konark temple in Odisha. Moreover, the gigantic iron beams at Konark, which lay buried in the sea sand for a few centuries were recently unearthed. These as well as numerous iron beams at Puri and Bhubaneswar where as many as 239 pieces were found in the Puri Gunduchibari temple are shining evidence for the supremacy of iron in ancient Indian culture". The corrosion resistance and sheer size of these artefacts point to highly evolved practices in metalworking involving iron. Moreover, the presence of numerous Aśoka pillars of stone cut out in a faultless manner from single pieces of stone of gigantic dimensions presupposes the use of the finest steel saws and steel chisels in India in the 4th century BCE. A large number of prehistoric iron implements such as swords, daggers, tridents, spears, javelins, arrows, spades, hangers, saucer lamps, beam rods, and tripods have been unearthed during the excavation of numerous burial sites in the Tuticorin district of Tamil Nadu. The stupa of Bodh Gaya belongs to the Aśokan times. The foundations of the stupa, on excavation, have a piece of iron slag that has been preserved in the Kolkata Museum. This piece of iron stag dated the 3rd century BCE is believed to be the most ancient archaeological evidence of the manufacture of iron in India. Besides the iron slag, many iron clamps five or six inches long and about one inch broad have been found in the main temple and in various stupas in Bodh Gaya, which are preserved in the Indian Museum. SMELTING OF IRON – India has one of the largest and richest deposits of hematite, magnetite, and their hydrated forms like limonite, etc. Spread all over India. Ancient Indians have been extracting the iron from these sources and producing sponge iron or wrought iron using a variety of furnaces. The furnaces built by Indians differed from those in Western Asia and Europe of the same period. While the Indian furnaces were built using prefabricated clay blocks, the others were made by digging a hole in the earth and arranging the stone pieces to the required shape. The Indian furnaces could be reused after repair whereas the Western furnaces were to be discarded after one use. The smelting of iron in the past was done by a special group (caste) of persons in each tribe and they all worshipped the God 'Asura. In Bihar, Odisha, and the Eastern part of Karnataka the iron smelting was carried out, by these 'Asuras' and in Central India by 'Agarias’. MANUFACTURE OF STEEL – Steel may be prepared in two ways - 1) by removing part of the carbon of cast iron before it is converted into wrought iron; or 2) by carburising wrought iron or making it combine with the requisite quantity of carbon. It is also called the process of cementation and has been discovered in England only in the18th century CE, while Indian iron was prepared by this process from time immemorial.  The iron produced by the Indian method is always wrought iron, unlike cast-iron which is produced in modern blast furnaces. The main reason is that the modern blast furnaces reach a temperature of 1400°C or more. On the other hand, the temperature in the furnaces is low, sufficient enough to only soften the iron. The process of Indian steelmaking – Wrought iron is first obtained by the direct method, viz. heating the ores of iron with charcoal in small blast furnaces (the blast being admitted employing hand bellows) without the intermediate formation of cast iron as has already been described. To convert the wrought iron into steel each piece is cut into three parts, each of which is put into a crucible, together with a handful of the dried branches of 'tangedu' (Cassia auriculata) and another of fresh leaves of vonangady.( convolvulus laurifolia)