Unit 11: French Revolution PDF

Unit 11: French Revolution ​ Taille- an annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy ​ Bourgeoisie- the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people ​ Sans-culottes- “without b...

Unit 11: French Revolution ​ Taille- an annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy ​ Bourgeoisie- the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people ​ Sans-culottes- “without breeches”; members of the Paris Commune who considered themselves ordinary patriots wearing long trousers instead of the fine knee-length breeches of the nobles. ​ Elector - an individual qualified to vote in an election ​ Coup d'etat - a sudden overthrow of the government ​ Consulate - government established in France after the overthrow of the Directory in 1799 ​ Nationalism - the unique cultural identity of a people based on common language, religion, and national symbols ​ Conservatism - a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion ​ Principle of intervention - the idea that great powers have the right to send armies into countries where there are revolutions to restore legitimate governments ​ Liberalism - a political philosophy originally based largely on Enlightenment principles, holding that people should be as free as possible from government restraint and that civil liberties—the basic rights of all people—should be protected.  ​ Civil Liberties- The Basic Rights of all people Unit One: Beginning of the Revolution ​ Why did the French Revolt? The French people felt as though they were facing too much of an economic hardship, the government was corrupt, and that France needed a change. ​ “The institutions of the Old Regime were destroyed. A new order emerged, based on individual rights, representative institutions, and a concept of loyalty to the nation rather than the monarch.” ​ The French people wanted a society and government that was based on equality of all and rights throughout society, not based on societal or economic status, leaving the three “Estates” system behind. Ultimately, the middle and lower classes felt as though the upper class held too many advantages they did not have. ​ Once Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estate Generals, which brought representatives of all three estates: 300 form the first estate, 300 from the second, and 600 from the third. ​ The third estate would be locked out of the meeting on June 20th, 1789, leading them to meeting on their own and swearing an oath to continue to meet until they had drafted a constitution. This would be called the Tennis Court Pledge, as it was signed at an indoor tennis court ​ Once Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estate Generals, which brought representatives of all three estates: 300 form the first estate, 300 from the second, and 600 from the third.  ​ The third estate would be locked out of the meeting on June 20th, 1789, leading them to meeting on their own and swearing an oath to continue to meet until they had drafted a constitution. This would be called the Tennis Court Pledge, as it was signed at an indoor tennis court ​ A group of 900 Parisians, members of the third estate, would storm Bastille, a prison and armory, and would take the prison after four hours of fighting. The rebels executed the warden, and destroyed Bastille. ​ “Paris was abandoned to the rebels.” ​ French government grew weary, and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, a form of a Bill of Rights. The French form was mainly inspired by the British form ​ Armed Parisian women marched on the King at Versailles, forcing him to agree to their demands ​ The King and his family were forced to return to Paris, where they were effectively prisoners ​ A limited Monarchy was set up in 1791, but still had struggles. ​ European leaders, fearing revolution would spread, threatened force to restore Louis XVI, prompting France's Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria in 1792. After initial defeats, the French began a frantic search for scapegoats. Lesson Two: Radical Revolution and Reaction The End of King Louis XVI’s Reign  ​ The French Revolution became more radical due to political instability, foreign threats, and poor economic conditions, prompting calls for drastic measures. In 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy, divided into factions like the Girondins and the Mountain, with the second pushing for the king’s execution to protect the republic. ​ In early 1793, a decree backed by the Mountain was passed, condemning Louis XVI to death. He was beheaded by a guillotine ​ The king’s execution created new enemies for the revolution, both at home and abroad. A new crisis was at hand. Reign of Terror ​ Reign of Terror: A period during the French Revolution when the government, led by the Committee of Public Safety under Maximilien Robespierre, took extreme measures to suppress opposition and protect the revolution from internal and external threats. ​ - To address the crises facing France, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, led by radical Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre, which controlled the government from 1793 to 1794. ​ - During this time, the Reign of Terror was launched to eliminate domestic threats, leading to the execution of around 40,000 people, including prominent figures like Marie Antoinette. Revolutionary armies suppressed rebellions in cities like Lyon and Nantes with brutal force, including mass executions by guillotine and  drowning in barges. ​ The Committee also introduced reforms to shape society, including the Republic of Virtue, a new social order emphasizing civic virtue, education, and the abolition of slavery in colonies ​ - Despite efforts to control inflation and ensure access to goods, the government's price controls failed to curb economic challenges. ​ - Women, though excluded from official power, actively participated in the revolution, forming groups like the Society for Revolutionary Republican Women. ​ - The Convention also pursued a policy of de-Christianization, closing churches, removing religious symbols, and adopting a new calendar that removed Sundays and religious holidays, though these measures met with resistance from the largely Catholic population. The Directory ​ After Robespierre’s death, moderate leaders took control, ending the Reign of Terror and reducing the power of the Committee of Public Safety. ​ - The Constitution of 1795 created a government with two legislative houses: the Council of 500 and the Council of Elders, with electors being a small, property-owning elite. ​ - The executive branch was a five-member committee called the Directory, which became known for corruption and mismanagement. ​ - The Directory faced opposition from both conservatives and radicals, while  economic and military problems continued. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory in a coup and seized power. Lesson Three: Napoleon Napoleon’s Rise ​ In many ways, Napoleon is considered to be a product of the revolution, but is also considered to have been the one who ended the revolution. ​ Despite his father being an Italian man, the island he grew up on was annexed by the French between his father’s birth and his birth, making him a French. ​ Napoleon studied different military leaders and French philosophers during his youth, making him one of the brighter minds during the French Revolution. ​ Napoleon quickly rose through the military ranks, becoming a general at 24 and winning decisive battles in Italy, which earned him the admiration of his troops and widespread fame. ​ After returning to France as a hero, he proposed an Egyptian campaign to strike at Britain indirectly, but after British naval defeats in 1799, he abandoned his forces and returned to Paris. ​ Napoleon rapidly rose through military ranks, becoming a captain in 1792, a brigadier general by 1794, and commander of the French army in Italy by 1796, where he won key victories that secured French control of northern Italy. ​ After his failed Egyptian campaign in 1799, he returned to France, took part in a  coup that overthrew the Directory, and established the Consulate, where he held absolute power as First Consul. ​ In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France, solidifying his control over the nation. ​ Napoleon sought to mend relations with the Catholic Church by recognizing Catholicism as the dominant religion in France, while ensuring the Church would not reclaim lands seized during the Revolution. This agreement in 1801 helped reduce Church opposition to the government and secured the support of those who had acquired Church lands. ​ In 1799, Napoleon became consul of France, which was at war with a European coalition of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria; he sought peace to stabilize France and prevent chaos. ​ A peace treaty was signed in 1802, but war with Britain resumed in 1803, eventually leading to Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia joining Britain against Napoleon. ​ Between 1805 and 1807, Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated Austrian, Prussian, and Russian forces in battles at Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau. ​ From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon controlled most of Europe, creating a Grand Empire made up of the French Empire, dependent states (ruled by his relatives), and allied states (countries forced to fight Britain). ​ Napoleon spread French Revolutionary principles like legal equality, religious tolerance, and economic freedom, aiming to destroy the old order in his empire  and promote liberal traditions. ​ Napoleon's attempt to invade Great Britain was thwarted by Britain's superior sea power, culminating in the British victory over the combined French-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, which ended his invasion plans. ​ Napoleon implemented the Continental System to economically isolate Britain, aiming to stop British goods from reaching Europe and weaken its ability to wage war. ​ The Continental System failed due to resistance from allied states, many of which ignored or cheated on Napoleon’s embargo, while Britain found new markets in the Middle East and Latin America, leading to record-high exports by 1810. ​ Nationalism played a key role in Napoleon's defeat, as the concept of a unified national identity based on language, religion, and culture began to spread across Europe. ​ Napoleon’s invasions of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Poland sparked nationalist movements: conquered peoples resisted the French and were inspired by the power of national identity, which fueled their desire for independence. Lesson Four: Fall of Napoleon ​ Napoleon's downfall began in 1812 when he decided to invade Russia. ​ The Russians had rejected the Continental System, forcing Napoleon to take action. ​ Napoleon knew the risks of invading Russia but felt he had to punish them to prevent other nations from following suit. ​ In June 1812, Napoleon led a Grand Army of over 600,000 men into Russia,  hoping for a quick victory. ​ The Russian forces retreated rather than engage in battle, burning villages and farmland to deny Napoleon's army food. ​ At the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon's forces won an indecisive victory, costing many lives. ​ Upon reaching Moscow, Napoleon found the city ablaze and lacking supplies, forcing him to abandon it in late October. ​ As winter set in, Napoleon's army began the "Great Retreat" westward, with thousands dying from starvation and the cold. ​ Only around 40,000 of the original 600,000 soldiers made it back to Poland by January 1813. ​ Napoleon's defeat led European powers to rise up against France, capturing Paris in March 1814 and exiling Napoleon to Elba. ​ Napoleon was no longer in power, and France was now going to begin their sixth government since the revolution began, with the House of Bourbon taking over the government after Napoleon’s removal. ​ After Napoleon's defeat, the victors (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 to restore the old order. ​ Austrian foreign minister Prince Klemens von Metternich led the meeting, advocating for the "principle of legitimacy" to restore pre-Napoleon monarchs for stability. ​ The Congress of Vienna rearranged European territories to create a balance of power, preventing any one nation from dominating Europe. ​ The arrangements favored conservative rulers who sought to contain the revolutionary changes of the French Revolution and emphasized obedience, religion, and political authority. ​ The great powers established the Concert of Europe, agreeing to meet regularly and adopt the "principle of intervention" to restore monarchs and suppress revolutions in places like Spain and Italy. ​ Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments in Europe tried to preserve the old order, while liberalism and nationalism pushed for change. ​ Liberalism, based on Enlightenment ideas, advocated for minimal government interference, civil liberties, and protections like equality before the law and freedom of speech. ​ Liberals favored constitutionalism, where governments would be bound by a constitution, and supported religious toleration and separation of church and state. ​ Although liberalism promoted civil rights, it restricted voting and office-holding to property-owning men, fearing mob rule and limiting power to the middle and landowning classes. ​ Nationalism emerged as people identified more strongly with their nation, believing each nationality should have its own government, which threatened the existing European order. ​ Nationalism and liberalism were often aligned, as both sought self-rule, with nationalists aiming for unity (e.g., in Germany) and independence (e.g., for Hungarians).