History Of India 1700-1857 PDF

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14mm HISTORY OF INDIA: HISTORY OF INDIA: 1700-1857 1700-1857 B.A. (PROGRAMME) HISTORY SEMESTER-V DSC - MINOR PAPER As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020 FOR LIMITED CIRCULATION DSC - MINOR PAPER DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING CAMPUS OF OPEN LEARNING, SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING UNIVERSITY OF DELHI UNIVERSITY OF DELHI 20CUS01379 History of India: 1700-1857 (For Limited Circulation) Editorial Board Dr. Chander Shekhar Singh, Dr. Ravindra Pratap Singh Dr. Shachindra Mohan, Dr. Vijay Kumar Tiwary Content Writers Dr. Vijay Kumar Tiwary Academic Coordinator Deekshant Awasthi E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 Reviewer Dr. Shachindra Mohan External Reviewer Prof. Anisha Srivastava Sri Aurobindo College (Evening) University of Delhi Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/ Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions may be sent at the email- [email protected] Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (1800 Copies) Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi History of India: 1700-1857 SYLLABUS History of India: 1700-1857 Syllabus Mapping Unit-I: India in the 18th Century: Background, Debate Lesson 1: India In The Eighteenth India in the Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates Century: Background, Debates (Pages 3–56) Unit-II: Expansion and Consolidation of British Power Lesson 2: Expansion and Expansion and Consolidation of British Power: Bengal, Consolidation of British Power: Mysore, Maratha, Punjab (1700-1857) Bengal, Mysore, Maratha and Expansion and Consolidation of British Power: Ideologies/ Punjab (1700-1857) Strategies of Raj (1700-1857) (Pages 59–82); Lesson 3: Expansion and Consolidation of British Power: Ideologies/Strategies of Raj (1700-1857) (Pages 83–114) Unit-III: Making of a Colonial Economy Making of a Colonial Economy: Land Revenue Settlements Lesson 4: Making of a Colonial (1700-1857) Economy: Land Revenue Making of a Colonial Economy: Commercialization of Settlements (1700-1857) Agriculture (1700-1857) (Pages 117–143); Making of a Colonial Economy: Deindustrialization in Lesson 5: Making of a Colonial Colonial India (1700-1857) Economy: Commercialization of Agriculture (1700-1857) (Pages 145–167); Lesson 6: Making of a Colonial Economy: Deindustrialization in Colonial India (1700-1857) (Pages 169–195) Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 Unit-IV: Social and Religious Reform Movements Lesson 7: Social and Religious Social and Religious Reform Movement: An Overview of Reform Movement: An Overview the Reformist Movements of the 19th Century (1700-1857) of the Reformist Movements Indigenous and Modern Education (1700-1857) of the 19th Century (1700-1857 (Pages 199–240); Lesson 8: Social and Religious Reform Movement: Indigenous and Modern Education (1700-1857) (Pages 241–264) Unit-V: The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Nature, and Consequences The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Nature, and Consequences Lesson 9: The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Nature, and Consequences (Pages 267–320) Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi History of India: 1700-1857 CONTENTS Unit I: India in the 18th Century: Background, Debate Lesson 1 India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates 3–56 Unit II: Expansion and Consolidation of British Power Lesson 2 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power: Bengal, Mysore, Maratha and Punjab (1700-1857) 59–82 Lesson 3 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power: Ideologies/Strategies of Raj (1700-1857) 83–114 Unit III: Making of a Colonial Economy Lesson 4 Making of a Colonial Economy: Land Revenue Settlements (1700-1857) 117–143 Lesson 5 Making of a Colonial Economy: Commercialization of Agriculture (1700-1857) 145–167 Lesson 6 Making of a Colonial Economy: Deindustrialization in Colonial India (1700-1857) 169–195 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 Unit IV: Social and Religious Reform Movements Lesson 7 Social and Religious Reform Movement: An Overview of the Reformist Movements of the 19th Century (1700-1857) 199–240 Lesson 8 Social and Religious Reform Movement: Indigenous and Modern Education (1700-1857) 241–264 Unit V: The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Nature, and Consequences Lesson 9 The Revolt of 1857: Causes, Nature, and Consequences 267–320 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Unit I: India in the 18th Century: Background, Debate Lesson 1: India in the Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates LESSON 1 NOTES INDIA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: BACKGROUND, DEBATES Dr. Vijay Kumar Tiwary Assistant Professor School of Open Learning University of Delhi STRUCTURE 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Background 1.4 Decline of the Mughal Kingdom 1.4.1 Political Reasons 1.4.2 Economic Reasons 1.4.3 Role of Aurangzeb 1.4.4 Religious Reasons 1.4.5 Military Weaknesses of the Mughals 1.4.6 Rise of New Social Groups 1.4.7 Failure to Appropriate Regional Surplus Resources 1.5 Rise of Regional Powers 1.5.1 Maratha 1.5.2 Awadh 1.5.3 Sikh 1.5.4 Ruhela or Rohilla 1.5.5 Bundela 1.5.6 Jat 1.5.7 Jaipur and Other Rajputana States 1.5.8 Hyderabad and Karnataka 1.5.9 Mysore 1.5.10 The State of Travancore 1.5.11 Bengal 1.6 Establishment of the British Empire 1.6.1 From Business Company to Political Power Self-Instructional Material 3 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES 1.6.2 Anglo-French Conflict in South India 1.6.3 Bengal’s Victory: Plassey to Buxar 1.6.4 Restructuring of the Political System 1.7 The Economy in Eighteenth Century in India 1.8 The Social Context 1.9 The Cultural Milieu 1.10 18th Century: A Dark Age 1.11 Debate and Problems in Understanding the History of the Eighteenth Century in India 1.12 Summary 1.13 Glossary 1.14 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.15 Self-Assessment Questions 1.16 References/Suggested Readings 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this lesson, students should be able to: Describe the reasons behind the decline of the Mughal Empire and the emergence of regional political entities. Outline the major political powers that rose during this time. Recognize the regional differences within the Indian economy of the period. Identify the characteristics of society and culture in the 18th century. Enumerate the challenges involved in understanding the eighteenth century. 1.2 INTRODUCTION The beginning of the 18th century marked a pivotal juncture in the annals of Indian history, as the once-mighty Mughal Empire began to wane, heralding Self-Instructional the emergence of diverse regional powers and the ingress of European trading 4 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates ventures onto Indian soil. This epoch, spanning from the early 1700s to the latter NOTES half of the century, witnessed a profound transformation in the socio-political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. In the early decades of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire, under the formidable reign of Aurangzeb, attained the pinnacle of its territorial expanse. Aurangzeb's ambitious military campaigns had extended Mughal dominion to the southern frontiers of the subcontinent, consolidating imperial authority over vast swathes of territory. However, the demise of Aurangzeb in 1707 precipitated a period of tumult and disintegration within the Mughal realm. The ensuing power vacuum engendered a proliferation of autonomous regional entities, each vying for supremacy amidst the waning influence of the central authority. Notable among these emergent polities were Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the Sikh Confederacy, which asserted their sovereignty over their respective domains, heralding the decentralization of political power in the subcontinent. The latter half of the 18th century witnessed a seismic shift in the geopolitical landscape of India, catalysed by the incursion of European trading companies onto its shores. Around the mid-18th century, European powers such as the Portuguese, British, and French began to assert their commercial interests in India, competing fiercely for dominance in the lucrative trade routes of the subcontinent. This period witnessed the intensification of conflicts between European powers, notably the Anglo-French rivalry, which manifested in a series of military engagements across Indian territories. The French Indian conflict and the British-Indian conflict emerged as salient features of the latter half of the 18th century, as European powers sought to expand their commercial foothold in India through coercive means. The Anglo- French struggle for supremacy culminated in pivotal engagements such as the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Wandiwash (1760), which decisively tilted the balance of power in favour of the British East India Company. By the close of the 18th century, the British East India Company had emerged as the paramount European power in India, consolidating its control Self-Instructional over vast territories through a combination of military conquest and diplomatic Material 5 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES machinations. The Company's ascendancy culminated in the establishment of British colonial rule over the Indian subcontinent, marking the onset of a new phase in India's history. Simultaneously, the decline of the Mughal Empire was precipitated by a series of internal revolts and external incursions, culminating in the cataclysmic events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebellion, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, dealt a fatal blow to the remnants of Mughal authority, paving the way for British annexation of Mughal territories and the formalisation of British colonial rule over India. The eighteenth century in India is a subject of extensive historical debate, reflecting various interpretations and perspectives. This period, marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers, has been examined through different lenses, each offering unique insights into the socio-political and economic transformations that took place. 1.3 BACKGROUND In Indian history, the eighteenth century was a period when enduring traditions were declining. The Mughal Empire was never as insecure in history as it was in the 18th century. The Mughal forts faced frequent attacks from Afghan marauders (Nadir Shah: 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali: 1748–1767), the Marathas (Peshwagan) and other warrior peasant groups (Jat, Rohilla and Sikh), and the military bureaucracy (Mansabdari system) which ruled the empire. We’re finding ourselves incapable of doing anything. The economic system of the Mughal Empire had completely broken down and as a result, the standard of living of the elite and gentry as well as their dependents, was adversely affected. The empire was bankrupt and political governance and economic integrity had disappeared. Two emperors of the Mughal dynasty, Ahmed Shah (1748-54) and Shah Alam (1759-1816) were blinded and Alamgir II (1754-1759) was murdered by the elite class in factional feuds. Self-Instructional 6 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates The speed with which all these events were happening in the 18th century NOTES was astonishing. The Mughal kingdom was at its regional peak during the administration of Aurangzeb in 1700. But around 1730, many of its parts were fragmented into regional states due to political reasons. Some of these, such as the Nawabi of Awadh or the Nizamat of Bengal, emerged as successor states and others, such as the Marathas and Jats, were the result of long-term and violent opposition to the Mughal Kingdom. In the next thirty years, India's political fortunes seem to be turning in a different direction. The British East India Company was a European power. It was successful in conquering many areas in Eastern India and also started interfering in other markets of the subcontinent. Based on these successes in political matters, the Company was slowly but surely moving towards starting a colonial state. Given these amazing changes, it is no wonder that people of that time began to think that their world was turning upside down. Seeing these changes, many modern historians have been attracted to the study of the 18th century and that is why the study related to the 18th century has become the centre of exciting debate among historians. This has brought significant development in the history and writing of this century. There is considerable disagreement in interpretations on many aspects, but there is consensus on some topics. In accordnace with the old explanation, the fall of the Mughal Empire was due to the religious fanaticism policy of Aurangzeb. It is now unanimously rejected. While Aurangzeb faced opposition from the Maratha, Jat and some Rajput clans, he equally faced opposition from the Muslim elite and officials, which ultimately led to increased factionalism and conflicts in the Mughal imperial court. On the other hand the powerful Rajput rulers remained loyal to the empire. The old stereotype that this century was a period of moral decline and cultural decline is also rejected. Now special attention is being given to the study of balanced and active cultural life of regional areas. Many of these regional states carried forward the legacy of Mughal culture and integrated it into the cultural heritage of the region. Lucknow and Hyderabad became major centres of patronage and cultural development of literature and art. Eighteenth-century Self-Instructional Banaras emerged as a centre of religious education and pilgrimage as well as Material 7 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES a centre of banking and trade in North India. In Bengal, Nadia was the centre of Sanskrit education and Dayabhaga was Hindu legal education. Meanwhile, Vishnupur became a flourishing centre for various styles of regional architecture and music. Under the patronage of the Maratha rulers in South India, Tanjore became a centre of famous religious, musical and theatrical traditions. Today, historians do not consider the fall of the Mughal Empire and its consequences as the result of religious fanaticism and the weakness of some particular ruler, but as the result of a structural failure occurring through a structural process and not the result of any individual failure. But there is much disagreement over the causes and nature of this structural failure. Some people consider this decline to be the result of an economic crisis caused by a hyper- exploitative ruling class. Some believe that this entire process is a result of regional revival, which ultimately encourages long-term economic disorder. There are also different explanations for the changing relationship between the state and society. What were the patterns and processes of economic development? The question of disputes over the dispensation of wealth arising from development in the kingdom and local areas, etc. But the 18th century was not limited to the fall of the Mughal kingdom and the consolidation of regional states. By the middle of this century, many other fundamental changes were taking place in the subcontinent. There are many explanations from historians about these, but they do not agree with each other. There are many areas of debate, including the company's transformation from business to political power. Second, were the roots of colonialism in India exogenous or local, and third, what were its social and economic impacts? In these, the questions of continuity and change and what is the importance of all these in the new colonial structure, all these questions are entangled with each other. Self-Instructional 8 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates NOTES 1.4 DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL KINGDOM Following the demise of Aurangzeb, the once-mighty Mughal Empire embarked on a precipitous decline, culminating in its fragmentation and eventual relegation to a mere shadow of its former glory. The reigns of successive emperors were marked by internal strife, political instability, and debauchery, exacerbating the empire's woes and hastening its descent into oblivion. A climate of insecurity and apprehension gripped India for the ensuing 150 years, as the struggle for power within the Mughal dynasty further undermined imperial authority. Factionalism and court intrigues proliferated, sapping the empire's strength and cohesion, while external pressures from regional powers and European trading ventures exacerbated its vulnerabilities. The decline of the Mughal Empire looms large in the historiography of 18th- century India, with scholars grappling with a myriad of factors contributing to its demise. From economic crises and administrative inefficiencies to social unrest and religious discord, a complex tapestry of forces converged to precipitate the empire's unravelling. Ultimately, the decline of the Mughal Empire serves as a poignant reminder of the ephemeral nature of imperial power and the inexorable march of history. Its legacy, though tarnished by the tumult of its final years, endures as a testament to the rich cultural heritage and grandeur of India's past. Here we can understand the historical perspective related to the decline of the Mughal Empire for the following reasons. 1.4.1 Political Reasons Let us discuss the political reasons which led to the decline of Mughal Empire through the following points: Absence of Succession Rules: The Mughal state in India was founded on the basis of power. After Babur, most rulers tried to gain the throne through strength and succeeded by the same means. As a result, there was Self-Instructional Material 9 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES no established rule of succession among the Mughals. After Babur’s death, there were struggles for the throne between Humayun and his brothers, Jahangir against Akbar, Shah Jahan against Jahangir, Prince Akbar against Aurangzeb, and among Aurangzeb’s sons after his death. This pattern continued in the future as well. In fact, during or after the emperor’s lifetime, conflicts would arise among ambitious claimants to the throne. This often led to civil wars. In these struggles, Mughal nobles, courtiers, governors, landholders, mansabdars (military commanders), and even the women of the royal palace participated. This resulted in factions and conspiracies dominating the court. These conflicts gradually caused enormous losses to the Mughal prestige, power, wealth, and population. In such a situation, divisive elements grew stronger, bringing the empire to the brink of collapse. Weak Successors of Aurangzeb: After Aurangzeb, a major reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire was the succession of weak and incompetent rulers. From Bahadur Shah I to Bahadur Shah Zafar, none of the rulers possessed the necessary character, political, military, or administrative skills. Most of their time was spent in indulgence and luxury. They completely lacked strong willpower. As a result, on one hand, regional elements became active and powerful, the administrative system became lax, and the wazir and other important officials concentrated all power in their own hands. On the other hand, the influence of selfish and ambitious nobles increased in the court. These people made the emperor a puppet of their hands. The Mughal emperors had to endure humiliation at their hands. For a while, the Sayyid brothers even became ‘kingmakers’. After their fall, many war officials, and nobles continued to act independently. The situation deteriorated to the extent that Jahandar Shah was murdered, Farrukhsiyar was blinded and deposed before being murdered in captivity, Ahmad Shah was deposed by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, Alamgir II was murdered, and Self-Instructional Shah Alam II did not dare to return to Delhi before 1772 due to fear of his 10 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates wazir. These weak rulers destroyed the power and prestige of the emperor, NOTES paving the way for the decline of the empire. Ambition of Provincial Governors: Taking advantage of the weakness of the Mughal emperors, provincial governors began to increase their influence. As the central power weakened, they became uncontrolled. They started attempting to establish their own independent rule in their respective provinces. As a result, many provinces slipped out of Mughal control. The emperors lacked the power to keep their governors in check. Consequently, from the time of Muhammad Shah, the process of the empire’s disintegration began. Mughal power ended in Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Bundelkhand, Punjab, and Rajputana. The Marathas had already driven them out from the south. Thus, Mughal rule was confined to the area around Delhi. Factionalism among the courtiers: In the last years of Aurangzeb’s rule, his high court elites began to be dividing into different groups and exerting pressure on the government. Although these groups were formed on the basis of clan or family relationships, personal interests or concerns were paramount. These groups maintained continuous unrest in the country. One of the major groups among these groups was the Turanis or Central Asian elites. Asaf Jah during the reign of Muhammad Shah. Nizam-ul-Mulk, Kamruddin and Zakaria Khan were the main leaders of this Turani faction. While the main leaders of the Parishiyai group were Amir Khan, Ishaq Khan and Saadat Khan. These groups had included their respective people. Most of them were from Central Asia or Persia. These two factions, known as Mughal or foreign factions, rivalled the Hindustani factions during that period, whose leaders were Syed Abdullah Khan and Syed Hussain Ali, popularly known as the Syed Bandhu had opened a front against each other. The Syed brothers had the support of Hindus. Each group claimed to be the emperor’s well-wisher and used to listen to the emperor. There was conflict between these groups which was disturbing the peace in the country and the administration continued to be ignored. They could not Self-Instructional Material 11 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES unite even during foreign invasions, and even sometimes conspired with foreign attackers. Administrative Corruption: Administrative corruption also played an important role in the decline of the empire. Initially, appointments in the Mughal administration were based on merit. However, later on, important positions were given based on the emperor’s personal wishes and the pressure of nobles. As a result, experienced and competent officials were replaced by inefficient and selfish individuals. This had disastrous consequences. The administrative system broke down, and corruption and bribery became rampant. Important positions and ranks (mansabs) were given in exchange for money. The number of mansabdars (rank holders) increased rapidly. In local governance, the influence of these mansabdars and jagirdars (landholders) grew excessively. They misused this influence for their own benefit. The negative effects of the jagirdari system became detrimental to the empire in the post-Mughal period. On one hand, the administrative system remained weak, and on the other, the emperor was engrossed in indulgence. In such a situation, it became increasingly difficult to control the vast Mughal Empire, and the empire gradually descended into decline. Foreign Origin of the Mughals: Many scholars believe that the foreign origin of the Mughals also contributed to the decline of the empire. The Mughals came from Central Asia and settled in India. Hence, they ruled with Central Asian ideals and policies in mind. They had to rely mostly on foreigners for administration. Indians were neglected in the administration and were never fully accepted. While it is true that the Mughals came from outside, they settled permanently in India and never thought of returning. Akbar’s policies made most Indians supporters of the Mughals. Foreign Invasions: Foreign invaders also contributed to worsening the Mughal’s weak position. The Mughals did not adequately secure the northwestern frontier. Consequently, in the 18th century, this border Self-Instructional 12 Material allowed Afghans (Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali) to invade India. Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates These invasions were motivated by the then-current political situation NOTES in India. These invaders destroyed the remaining prestige of the empire. Muhammad Shah was taken captive by Nadir Shah, Delhi was burned down, and all its wealth was destroyed. Ahmad Shah defeated the Marathas, who were the Mughal protectors, making the Mughals helpless. Shah Alam had to make a treaty with the British. Thus, the Mughals’ independent rule ended, and they became pensioners of the Company, remaining emperors in name only. Rise of European Powers in India - From the 16th century, European powers began to increase their influence in India. Under the guise of trade, they also became interested in political activities. By the 18th century, the Portuguese and the British became the most powerful in India, with the British surpassing the Portuguese. After the Carnatic Wars and the Battle of Plassey, the British started to establish political control in India. The Mughals were so incompetent that they could not control the British. In the Battle of Buxar, Shah Alam was also defeated by the British. The Mughals’ power and prestige were completely destroyed. The British made the Mughals their pensioners and took control of the entire empire and administration. In 1858, the British finally ended Mughal rule. 1.4.2 Economic Reasons In this section, we will study the economic reasons for the decline of the Mughal Empire. Weak Economic System: The weakening of the economic system became a major reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire. Under this we mainly find the crisis of the Jagirdari system and the agricultural system. Historian Satish Chandra says that the Mughal Empire declined due to the crisis in the Jagirdari system. This happened because the number of jagirdars was more but the number of jagirs was less. Amirs were the chief state officials in the Mughal Empire. The recipient of Mansab was called Mansabdar, Self-Instructional he was paid through Jagir. Apart from other responsibilities, Mansabdars Material 13 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES also had to maintain their own army. The salary and maintenance of these soldiers were done from the income of the jagir only. These soldiers were the basis of the power of the Mansabdar and helped in collecting land revenue. During the last period of Aurangzeb’s rule, the Mughal administration failed to maintain the Jagirdari system permanently. This unsuccessful Jagirdari system continued even after the death of Aurangzeb, which became the main reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire. The crisis in the agricultural system was directly related to the Mansabdari system. According to historian Satish Chandra, the crisis of the Mansabdari system could have been stopped by developing an agricultural and non- agricultural economy. We find that the Mughal Empire maintained a large army for its security, for whose protection more revenue was required. At the same time the rich wanted to get maximum revenue from their estates. This burden of revenue fell mainly on agriculture. The burden of revenue on the farmers increased and they were deprived of even the basic necessities of life. It also had an impact on the relationship between the Mughal power and the farmers. For this reason, sometimes farmers refused to pay the revenue. Historian Irfan Habib says that due to this protest by the farmers, the political and social system of the Mughal Empire started weakening. As a result, surplus production in the agricultural sector also decreased and economic growth slowed down. Changes in Regional Economies: During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, significant economic changes were taking place at the regional level across the Indian subcontinent. Local economies began to exhibit greater dynamism and diversification, with increased agricultural productivity, expansion of trade networks, and the rise of artisanal and manufacturing activities. These changes led to the growth of prosperous regional economies that were less dependent on the central Mughal administration. For instance, regions such as Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan witnessed the emergence of vibrant commercial centers. Self-Instructional The proliferation of cash crops like cotton and indigo, and the flourishing 14 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates textile industry in these areas, contributed to economic prosperity. These NOTES developments facilitated the rise of regional powers that could sustain themselves economically without relying on the central Mughal treasury. Rise of Portfolio Capitalists and Upstarts: Another crucial aspect of the eighteenth-century Indian economy was the rise of portfolio capitalists and upstarts who began to play a decisive role in regional politics and economic activities. These individuals and groups, often comprising merchants, bankers, and financiers, accumulated substantial wealth and used it to gain political influence. They provided crucial financial support to regional rulers and aspiring chieftains, enabling them to challenge Mughal authority. These portfolio capitalists operated in a complex web of commercial and financial networks that extended across regional and international markets. They financed trade, facilitated the movement of goods, and invested in various enterprises. Their economic power allowed them to exert considerable influence over regional rulers, often dictating terms and conditions that favoured their interests. The influence of these capitalists and upstarts is evident in the rise of powerful states like Hyderabad and Mysore, where local rulers like the Nizam and Hyder Ali relied heavily on the financial backing of merchants and bankers. This phenomenon underscores the shift in the locus of economic and political power from the central Mughal administration to regional actors who were better positioned to harness local resources and drive economic growth. 1.4.3 Role of Aurangzeb Aurangzeb practically disintegrated the huge Mughal Empire established by Akbar. The decline of the Mughal Empire started in from the initial period of Aurangzeb and due to his shortsighted policies, the foundation of the Mughal rule started weakening. Due to his religious policies, he not only massacred non- Muslims but also implemented illiberal policies against his Hindu subjects. As a result, his lifelong attempt to rule India ended in chaos. Self-Instructional Material 15 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES Aurangzeb's absence in Delhi from day to day gave opportunity to opportunists who were determined to remove the Mughals from power. Aurangzeb had to face many rebellions during his reign and these rebellions shook the foundation of the Mughal Empire. In Agra, Jats were bent on rebellion, while in the south, the idea of Swaraj was being promoted under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji. These rebellions gained strength due to Aurangzeb's tough grassroots attitude towards the Marathas, Jats and Rajputs. Aurangzeb had refused to give them regional autonomy. Aurangzeb, driven by ambition, relentlessly sought to expand his empire's boundaries, despite the heavy toll on lives and property. However, his inability to secure favourable treaties left his realm increasingly vulnerable, with a mounting list of adversaries. While Aurangzeb's conquest of Bijapur and Golconda is often hailed as a triumph over the Sunnis, it inadvertently cleared the path for the burgeoning power of the Marathas by removing a significant barrier. His paranoid disposition led to an autocratic rule, centralising all governance powers, which infuriated the nobility and elite officials. The aristocrats bore the brunt of Aurangzeb's autocracy, stripped of their status and rights, rendering them profoundly impacted by his reign. Aurangzeb foresaw the perilous power struggle that would ensue among his sons and, in a bid to forestall it, divided the empire into four equal parts. Despite his efforts, civil strife erupted even before his demise. Ultimately, Bahadur Shah I triumphed amidst the chaos, yet the inevitability of civil conflict among Mughal successors became glaringly apparent. The toxic brew of enmity, jealousy, and rivalry among the princes catalyzed the disintegration of illustrious Mughal India, precipitating the decline of provincial powers. 1.4.4 Religious Reasons Although Mughal emperors generally adopted a policy of secularism in India, the religious policy of the Mughal emperors gradually became narrower after Akbar. Many scholars believe that the religious narrow-mindedness adopted Self-Instructional 16 Material by Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb was politically motivated rather than Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates religious. However, it cannot be denied that the narrow policies of Shah Jahan NOTES and Aurangzeb unintentionally made the majority of Hindus oppose the Mughals. They began to feel that the Mughals were discriminating against them and oppressing them on religious grounds. This sentiment was further fuelled by self-serving politics. As a result, the Mughals began to lose the sympathy of the general populace. Taking advantage of this, the Rajputs, Marathas, Jats, Satnamis, and Sikhs raised the banner of rebellion. Even Aurangzeb could not fully control them. Anti-Mughal campaigns continued even after Aurangzeb. Religion became dominant over politics, and it became difficult for the Mughals to suppress these rebellions. These uprisings weakened the foundations of the empire and paved the way for its destruction. 1.4.5 Military Weaknesses of the Mughals The establishment and expansion of the Mughal Empire in India were based on military strength. As long as the Mughal military power was well-organised, the empire continued to grow. However, with the weakening of this military power, the process of the empire’s decline began. The organisation and structure of the Mughal administration were based on military needs. In this system, it was essential for the central authority to be powerful. Only a competent administrator could efficiently run this system. Despite many flaws, Akbar was able to maintain control over this organisation. However, after him, the military system became weaker. The Mughal army was based on the mansabdari system, but over time, this very system became the main cause of the Mughal army’s weakness. When the emperors were weak, the mansabdars (rank holders) began to increase their influence. Their army’s loyalty was not towards the emperor. The soldiers in the mansabdars’ armies were not always of good quality, so even if they supported the emperor, they were not very effective. The Mughal army consisted of soldiers from various castes, regions, and nations, so they could not work together effectively in times of crisis. They lacked a sense of nationalism. Initially, the foundation of the Mughal military strength was the Rajputs, but gradually, by alienating them from the army, the Mughals hurt themselves. Self-Instructional Material 17 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES Indiscipline and luxury also crept into the Mughal army. Internal conflicts among commanders, poor strategies, lack of a navy, reliance on outdated weapons, proficiency only in field battles, and ignorance of guerrilla warfare were some of the reasons that destroyed the Mughal army’s capabilities, leading to repeated defeats. The Mughal army also suffered due to unnecessary continuous wars and succession struggles. 1.4.6 Rise of New Social Groups The economic transformations of the period were accompanied by the rise of new social groups that played crucial roles in regional politics and economy. The decline of Mughal authority allowed for the emergence of powerful local chieftains, zamindars (landholders), and merchant classes who began to assert their influence. These groups often had their own military forces and administrative structures, further weakening the central authority of the Mughal rulers. In many cases, these new social groups were able to establish semi-autonomous or fully independent states. The Marathas in western India, the Sikhs in Punjab, and the Jats in northern India are notable examples of such regional powers. These groups not only challenged Mughal supremacy but also established new political entities that contributed to the fragmentation of the empire. 1.4.7 Failure to Appropriate Regional Surplus Resources A significant factor in the decline of the Mughal Empire was the failure of its rulers to effectively appropriate the surplus resources generated at the regional level. The traditional Mughal revenue system, which relied heavily on the jagirdari (land grant) system, became increasingly inefficient and corrupt. As regional economies became more self-sufficient and local elites gained more power, the central Mughal administration struggled to collect adequate revenue to maintain its vast bureaucracy and military. The inability to tap into regional wealth meant that the Mughal state faced severe fiscal crises. This financial weakness hampered the empire’s ability to respond to external Self-Instructional 18 Material threats and internal rebellions, further accelerating its decline. The erosion of Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates central control over revenue collection also led to widespread corruption and NOTES administrative inefficiency, undermining the effectiveness of Mughal governance. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century was a complex process influenced by a multitude of factors beyond mere economic pressure and poverty. Significant changes in local economies, the rise of new social groups, the failure of Mughal rulers to appropriate regional surplus resources, and the emergence of portfolio capitalists and upstarts all played pivotal roles in shaping the historical trajectory of the period. Understanding these dynamics provides a more nuanced and comprehensive view of the decline of one of India’s greatest empires, highlighting the interplay among economic, social, and political forces in the historical progression of the region. Apart from these reasons, the vastness of the Mughal Empire, the inadequacy of communication and transportation facilities, a flawed social structure and system, the lack of peace and security, intellectual decline, and Aurangzeb’s faulty policies also contributed to the disintegration and downfall of the Mughal Empire. 1.5 RISE OF REGIONAL POWERS In the 18th century, new political aspirants got the opportunity to create small local kingdoms on the basis of region, religion and fanaticism. The 18th century provided these through massive re-mobilization of resources and military expansion. On the other hand, there were foreign traders like the English East India Company, who did not want to miss any opportunity to expand and increase their wealth. This century provided a vast terrain of domination and oppression. Historians like C.A.Bayly and Andre Vink argue that the emergence of new states in the declining Mughal Empire was not a new phenomenon. This was showing the completion of the already existing process of expansion and development and the wavering Mughal system could not stop it. There are many such instances, where those who took advantage of the economic transformation Self-Instructional became rulers themselves and were entangled in a tug-of-war of conquering Material 19 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES and suppressing each other. These rulers, imbued with local sentiments, took administrative powers into their own hands and followed the policies of military expansion. As a result of these policies, new methods of revenue collection and revenue management were implemented immediately. David Washbook has named this as military financialism. Some of these states such as Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad can be called succession states. As a result of the weakening of the central administrative system of the Mughal rulers, the governors of the Mughal provinces declared themselves autonomous and thus these states emerged. The rebellion of local satraps, zamindars and peasants against Mughal power gave rise to the Maratha, Afghan, Jat and Punjab states. The form of politics in these two types of states or regions was different to some extent and due to local conditions there were mutual disputes between them. Despite this, these states maintained Mughal institutions and systems in many areas of administration. Along with the succession states and the rebel states, there were some other states like Rajputana, Mysore and Travancore that enjoyed considerable autonomy for the past decades. All these states became completely independent in the 18th century. 1.5.1 Maratha After Aurangzeb's death, his second son and claimant to the throne, Azam, freed Sahu, the great grandson of Shivaji and son of Sambhaji, from captivity. After Sambhaji's death by hanging in 1689, Shah was arrested and presented before Mughal court. On reaching Satara in January 1708, Sahu ji was coronated. After Sambhaji's death, Sambhaji's step brother Rajaram took over the leadership of the Marathas and he continued to fight against the Mughals till his last breath. His widow Tarabai, a powerful and domineering woman, declared herself regent on behalf of her son. At such a time, due to the arrival of Sahu, the Maratha Satraps were in a dilemma, resulting in the civil war. Sahu emerged victorious with the help and advice of Balaji Vishwanath, a prominent Maratha officer. Respecting the invaluable services of Balaji Vishwanath, Sahu gave him the post of Peshwa Self-Instructional i.e. Prime Minister in 1713. From now on Chhatrapati remained only the nominal 20 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates top post of Marathas. Balaji Vishwanath made Peshwai hereditary with his ability NOTES and efficient administration. Through an agreement with the Sayyid brothers, Sahu was recognised as the king of Shivaji's home state and was also allowed to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces in the south. His son and successor to the post of Peshwa, Bajirao, had taken Maratha power to its peak. To get the support of Hindu satraps against everyone's common enemy, the Mughals, he propagated and popularised the ideology of Hindu Padshahi. After Shivaji, Bajirao is considered the great master of guerrilla warfare. Bajirao who was popularly known as Nana Sahib. The Maratha Empire expanded from Cuttack to Attock and captured Delhi in 1760. But the Maratha victory over Delhi did not last long and they had to face a crushing defeat at the hands of the Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Abdali in the battle of Panipat in 1761. Despite their defeat, the Maratha, led by the succeeding Peshwas, were still very active in the policy of expansion and growth of their empire. During the rule of Peshwa Madhav Rao, the Marathas under the leadership of Mahadji Scindia captured Delhi again in 1771. The prestige of the Marathas suffered a setback in the Anglo-Maratha War (1776–82). This war culminated in the Treaty of Salabai(1782). During the reign of Peshwa Bajirao II (1798–1818), a Subsidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed and led to the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05). The third war between the British and the Marathas (1817-18) ended Maratha power. The post of Peshwa was abolished and the British granted Bajirao II a small pension and sent him to Bithoor near Kanpur. To satisfy the Marathas' pride, nominal king Pratap Singh was installed on Satara's throne. The Marathas, under leaders like Shivaji and later the Peshwas, built a formidable confederacy that stretched across large parts of India. Their power was rooted in a combination of military prowess, administrative acumen, and a vibrant local economy. The Maratha agrarian base was strengthened by the cultivation of cash crops and efficient land revenue systems. Additionally, the Marathas benefited from a decentralized polity where local chieftains (sardars) wielded significant power, fostering a sense of regional identity and loyalty. Self-Instructional Material 21 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES Their ability to mobilize resources and troops quickly allowed them to challenge Mughal authority effectively and carve out a vast empire. Lesson 2 discusses in detail as to how three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought, resulting in the merger of the Maratha Kingdom into the Bombay Presidency. 1.5.2 Awadh During the reign of the Mughals, the Awadh province included the main Awadh, Banaras, some parts around Allahabad and some areas to the west of Awadh and Kanpur. After the death of Subedar Saadat Khan of Awadh in 1724, his nephew Safdar Jang took over the rule of this province. After taking over the administration, this new Subedar started ruling independently. In 1748, Safdar Jang was appointed wazir of the Emperor of Delhi but it was Javed Khan who was the real power behind the throne of Delhi. The Afghans also opposed him and forced him to sign a peace treaty in 1752. But soon he got Javed Khan murdered and tried to take over the entire power of the state. Due to his excessive ambition, many nobles and kings of the Delhi court became angry with him. Safdar Jang suffered a severe defeat in the civil war that followed and was forced to go to Awadh in 1753, where he soon died. His son Suja-ud-Daula held the post of Subedar of Awadh. There were rapid changes in Indian history in the middle of the 18th century. In this, Subedar of Awadh Suja-ud-Daula played an important role. His relations with Wazir Imad- ud-Mulk of Delhi were very bad. As a result, new conspiracies were hatched between the two every day. Imad-ud-Mulk took over all the powers from Emperor Alamgir II and forced Ali Gauhar (later Shah Alam II) to take refuge in Awadh. After the death of the Emperor, Ali Gauhar declared himself the Emperor and named Suja-ud-Daula as his wazir. In 1763, Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal, met Suja-ud-Daula after his defeat at the hands of the East India Company and asked for help. Both Suja- Self-Instructional ud-Daula and Shah Alam II agreed to support Mir Qasim against the British. 22 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates But the British defeated this combined army in the Battle of Buxar (1764). Shah NOTES Alam II became a pensioner of the British, the province of Suja-ud-Daula came under the control of the British and Mir Qasim had to flee to save his life. As a result, this war deeply harmed the independent rule of the Subedar of Awadh. In Awadh, under Nawabs like Saadat Khan and Shuja-ud-Daula, the region experienced significant economic and administrative reforms that bolstered its autonomy. Awadh’s fertile plains were highly productive, and the region became a major centre for the production of food grains, textiles, and luxury goods. The Nawabs invested in infrastructure, including irrigation and road networks, enhancing agricultural. 1.5.3 Sikh After the assassination of Guru Gobind Singh by the Afghans in 1708, the Sikhs got a new leader in the form of Banda and the Sikhs started the fight for independence against the Mughals. He defeated the Mughal army in Sirhind and captured it. Banda Bahadur was appointed as the governor of Sirhind and also captured the entire land between Sutlej and Yamuna and assumed the title of Sacha Padshah i.e. true ruler. Alarmed by these developments, the Mughal Administrator Bahadur Shah marched against Banda and laid siege to Lohgarh but soon died in 1712. Without wasting any time, Banda recaptured Lohgarh and built a second fort at Gurudaspur. Emperor Farrukhsiyar ordered Kashmir Governor Samad Khan to attack the Sikhs. Banda was defeated and continuously pursued. He was forced to surrender to the Mughals on December 17, 1715 and was ultimately crucified. The disoriented Sikhs found another leader in the form of Kapur Singh and started harassing the Mughals again. Nadir Shah’s invasion (1739) weakened the Mughal rule in Punjab. This helped the Sikhs to increase their financial resources and expand their army. Even after the first plunder, the attacks by the Afghans continued under the Abdali's leadership. He attacked India for the fourth time in 1756. The Mughal emperor was so frightened that he handed over Punjab, Kashmir and Sirhind to Self-Instructional Material 23 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES Abdali. Abdali appointed his son Timur Shah as governor of the Indian territory and Jahan Khan as his Wazir. Due to the killing of Sikhs, the Sikhs revolted and the Marathas supported them. The joint army of Marathas and Sikhs attacked the lands occupied by Abdali and expelled the Afghans from many areas. They plundered Sirhind and completely crushed the invaders. To establish his supremacy in India, Abdali had to fight the Marathas at Panipat in 1761 in his fifth invasion. After the defeat of the Marathas, Abdali returned to Afghanistan but on the way the Sikhs harassed him a lot. The Sikhs found a very good path to freedom from the troubled conditions of Punjab. They organised in Amritsar in 1764 and proclaimed the first Sikh sovereign state and minted their own coins bearing the inscription Degh Teg Fateh (Victory to Charity and Arms). After Abdali's final departure from India, the Sikhs captured Lahore between 1767 and 1773. Now the jurisdiction of the Sikhs extends from Saharanpur in the east to Attock in the west and from Multan in the south to Kangra and Jamuna in the north. Later Lord Dalhousie annexed the Sikh state on March 29, 1849 and annexed it to the British Empire. The Sikhs, under leaders like Guru Gobind Singh and later Maharaja Ranjit Singh, established a powerful and independent state in Punjab. The rise of the Sikh power was rooted in a dynamic social and religious movement that mobilized the local peasantry and warrior classes. The agricultural prosperity of Punjab, combined with the strategic use of resources, enabled the Sikhs to build a strong economic base. The Khalsa, a militarized community of Sikhs, played a crucial role in resisting Mughal and Afghan invasions. Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikh Empire further consolidated its power by modernizing the army, investing in infrastructure, and fostering trade and industry. This economic and military strength allowed the Sikhs to maintain a significant degree of autonomy and challenge Mughal authority effectively. The British annexation of Punjab was possible after three Anglo-Sikh Wars (discussed in detail in Lesson 2). Self-Instructional 24 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates 1.5.4 Ruhela or Rohilla NOTES In the sixteenth century, the Mughals defeated the Afghans and became the masters of India and completely ousted the Afghans from power. Despite being out of power, there were some settlements of Afghans in Allahabad, Darbhanga, Odisha and Sylhet. There was a similar Afghan settlement in Rohilkhand, which was settled by an Afghan soldier named Dawood. David and his followers worked as mercenaries for local landlords and later started doing the same work for the royal administrators in that area. David's successor, Ali Mohammad Khan, began to put into action an ambitious plan to expand his fiefdom. Gradually, by eliminating the local zamindars and jagirdars, he created a huge estate in Bareilly district. He captured the land of Mohammad Salih in 1727. This land was given to Mohammad Salih by the royal court. Mohammad Khan declared himself the Nawab of this huge estate. With the intervention of Shahi Wazir Qamar-ud-din Khan, he agreed to do the work of revenue collection for the Mughal Emperor in place of Mohammad Salih. During the invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali, he started capturing the lands of the Mughals and had to face the forces of King Harnand Arora. Raja Harnand Arora was the governor of Moradabad. In a decisive battle, Ali Mohammad Khan defeated Raja Harnand Arora and killed him. Due to the war, the power and prestige of this Rohilla chieftain reached their peak and thousands of Afghans came under his leadership. Ali Mohammad Rohilla had by now conquered some Parganas of Bareilly and Badaun and had also captured Pilibhit and some parts of Kumaon state. By 1748 he took control over the entire Bijnor. In a war with the Mughals, he forced the Mughal Emperor to sign a peace treaty. Ali Mohammad was appointed Faujdar of Sirhind as Char Hazari Mansabdar. After the death of Ali Mohammad in September 1748, internal strife and disputes started, Mughal Governor Safdar Jung took full advantage of them. He instigated Bangash Sardar Qaim Khan to drive out the Afghans from Rohilkhand. In this attempt, Kaim Khan was defeated and killed in the battle and his jagir situated on the eastern bank of the Ganges was captured by the Rohillas. Self-Instructional Material 25 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES The status quo remained until the third battle of Panipat (1761). The Rohilla and Bangash Afghans supported the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali and as a result acquired some jagirs. Hafiz lived peacefully under the leadership of Rahmat Khan from 1761-1768. Hafiz Rahmat Khan was a great warrior and wise ruler. The situation started worsening when the Marathas and the Nawab of Awadh came forward with these developments. Meanwhile, a third party also entered the fray, whose name was East India Company. The British assisted the Nawab of Awadh in the war against the Rohillas. After the defeat of the Rohillas, the Nawab of Awadh took away almost all the land of the Rohillas and left a small area of Rohilkhand in Rampur for Faizal Khan, son of Ali Mohammad Khan Rohilla. 1.5.5 Bundela Chhatrasal Bundela receives credit for establishing Bundela State. Chhatrasal had isolated a part of Bundelkhand during Aurangzeb's last days. After Aurangzeb's death, he decided to become independent from the Mughals and started ignoring orders from Delhi. But soon he changed his stubborn attitude and sent his sons to meet Bahadur Shah. This meeting took place at a time when Bahadur Shah had launched a campaign against his brother Mirza Muhammad Kambakhsh. Chhatrasal was pleased with this step, so the Mughal emperor granted Mansabdari to him. In return, Chhatrasal helped the Emperor in his campaign against Banda and joined him in the attack on Lohgarh. However, in 1720, Mohammad Khan Bagsh was appointed as the administrator of Allahabad. Mohammad Khan was one of the Sayyid brothers. The Sayyid brothers had severe enmity with the king. The entire land of Bundelkhand, as well as the part under the jurisdiction of Chhatrasal, came under Allahabad administration. Mohammad Khan handed over the responsibility for the occupied part of Chhatrasal to Diler Khan. Due to this, the Bundelas rebelled, and Diler Khan was defeated in 1721. In 1723, the Mughal emperor ordered Mohammad Khan to attack Chhatrasal. In this campaign, Mohammad Khan was successful in capturing Self-Instructional the eastern part of Bundelkhand. Bundela had lost most of the land under his 26 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates control. Chhatrasal again started attacks with renewed vigour and enthusiasm and NOTES recaptured all the lost territory. In this campaign, Chhatrasal sought help from Peshwa Bajirao in the war against the Mughals and with the help of Peshwa, he gave a massive defeat to Mohammad Khan Bangash and Kaim Khan who were helping him. Chhatrasal died at the age of 82 and his sons Harde Raj and Jagat Raj divided the kingdom among themselves. Peshwa had helped the Bundles, and a small part of the state was given to them as Jagir. With the division of the state, the fame and glory of the Bundala’s gradually began to weaken, and their prestige was lost. 1.5.6 Jat During Aurangzeb's reign, bands of Jats formed gangs notorious for their robberies, particularly in the region between Delhi and Agra, where they even seized some territory. Led by chieftains like Rajaram, Bhajja and Chudaman, they held sway until 1721 when Churaman's defeat by Sawai Jai Singh II marked a turning point, causing their grip to weaken. Historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar notes that until the mid-18th century, the Jats lacked centralised leadership or a coherent state structure. However, under the leadership of Churaman's nephew, Badan Singh, the Jats underwent a transformation. Badan Singh united disparate Jat clans, fostering a collective sense of identity and governance. His death in 1756 saw Suraj Mal, described by historians as the Plato or Ulysses of the Jat community, ascend to power. Suraj Mal exhibited remarkable political acumen, expanding his realm to encompass territories including Agra, Dholpur, Mainpur, Hathras, Meerut, and others. He demonstrated military prowess by resisting Abdali's siege and aiding the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat. Suraj Mal's vision extended to state-building, as he adopted Mughal revenue systems to strengthen governance. However, upon his demise in 1763, the Jat state faltered, fracturing into smaller zamindaris, marking the end of their brief but significant period of political prominence. The Jats, a powerful agrarian community in northern India, established themselves as a significant regional power under leaders like Suraj Mal. The Jat Self-Instructional Material 27 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES kingdom of Bharatpur, in particular, became known for its military prowess and economic resilience. The Jats leveraged their control over fertile agricultural land to build a strong economic base, focusing on the production of cash crops and the efficient management of irrigation systems. Suraj Mal’s strategic acumen in fortification and defense enabled the Jats to resist Mughal incursions and assert their independence. The economic stability provided by agriculture and trade allowed the Jats to maintain a formidable military force and play a crucial role in the regional politics of northern India. 1.5.7 Jaipur and Other Rajputana States Jaipur (formerly known as Amber) in eastern Rajasthan was ruled by the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs. In the early 1700s, Jai Singh Sawai, the ruler, took several actions to greatly increase his power. He (i) arranged to have his jagir (land grant) located near his home territories and (ii) obtained permanent rights to collect land taxes through farming (a system where the state rents land tax collection rights to individuals). By the time he died in 1743, Jai Singh (after whom Jaipur was named) had become the most important ruler in the region. Meanwhile, most other Rajput states were frequently involved in minor disputes and internal conflicts. For instance, Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed by his own son. In the 1750s, Suraj Mal, the Jat ruler of Bharatpur, adopted a modified version of Mughal revenue administration for his lands, similar to what Jai Singh had done. However, during this period, Jaipur's fortunes were in serious decline. Threatened by the Marathas, Jaipur had to resort to short-term financial measures. Additionally, a series of crop failures in the 1750s and 60s weakened agriculture. The second half of the eighteenth century saw an economic depression and a decline in Jaipur's political power. This made Jaipur a vulnerable target for the Marathas, especially Mahadaji Sindhia. The states mentioned so far, except for the Marathas, were all landlocked. This didn't mean that trade wasn't important to them—Ranjit Singh's kingdom, Self-Instructional 28 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates for example, was heavily involved in trade. However, not having access to the sea NOTES made these states more vulnerable, especially during a time when the dominant power was the English East India Company, which started as a maritime trading company. 1.5.8 Hyderabad and Karnataka In 1724, Chin Vichalch Khan, a prominent figure at the royal court, laid the groundwork for the autonomous state of Hyderabad and assumed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jahan. Although never openly declared independence from Delhi, he wielded de facto autonomy, enforcing his authority over disobedient landlords and economically influential Hindus. Through leniency towards the latter, he cultivated an elite class supportive of his rule, solidifying his position. Following Nizam Asaf Jahan's demise, Hyderabad encountered numerous setbacks. Marathas from Mysore and Karnataka encroached upon its territories, exacerbating its woes. However, the ascension of Nizam Ali Khan in 1762 heralded a period of rejuvenation. Under his stewardship until 1803, he resolved border disputes with neighbours and restored political equilibrium in Hyderabad. Hyderabad, under the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, emerged as a powerful and autonomous state in the Deccan. The region’s economic foundation was bolstered by its strategic position on trade routes and its rich agricultural base. Hyderabad became a hub for trade in textiles, diamonds, and spices, attracting merchants and artisans from across the subcontinent and beyond. The Nizam’s administrative reforms, which included efficient revenue collection and the establishment of a stable bureaucracy, further strengthened the state’s economic base. The region’s economic prosperity enabled the Nizam to maintain a powerful military and assert his independence from Mughal authority, effectively decentralizing power in the Deccan. Karnataka, once a Mughal province in the south, operated under the quasi- independence of the Nizam of Hyderabad, distancing itself from Delhi's authority. Similarly, the Lieutenant Governor of Karnataka, the Nawab of Karnataka, Self-Instructional Material 29 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES asserted independence from the Viceroy of the South. However, post-1740, internal strife over the Nawabi destabilised Karnataka, opening avenues for direct intervention by European trading companies in Indian political affairs. 1.5.9 Mysore Following the decline of the Mughal Empire, Mysore emerged as a virtually independent entity. Though ruled by a Hindu dynasty, power was largely centralised in the hands of the Dalwai, or Prime Minister, who overshadowed the nominal ruler. When the enterprising Haider Ali entered the state's service, Naniraj Delwai held the position of Prime Minister. Despite Haider Ali's lack of formal education, his boldness, determination, and astute insight were evident. Ambitious and shrewd, he capitalised on the turmoil of the times to consolidate his authority, displacing Naniraj and seizing control. Suppressing local chieftains in South India, he expanded Mysore's territory through conquests in Sunda, Bednore Kanara, Sara, and Guti. This aggressive expansion positioned Mysore as a significant rival to the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and even the British in South India. Mysore, under rulers like Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, developed into a formidable regional power with a strong economic and social base. The state invested heavily in agriculture, irrigation, and military innovation. Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan introduced modern military techniques and weapons, making Mysore a significant military threat to both the British and neighbouring Indian states. Economically, Mysore benefited from its strategic location, which facilitated trade and commerce. The state’s silk and sandalwood industries thrived, contributing to its wealth. The rulers of Mysore also promoted administrative reforms and encouraged the development of local industries, which provided a stable economic foundation for their political ambitions and resistance against Mughal and British encroachment. In Lesson 2, you will learn in detail as to how Mysore became an East India Company dependent nation. Self-Instructional 30 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates 1.5.10 The State of Travancore NOTES Martanda Varma, who ruled the southern Kerala state of Venad (Travancore) from 1729 to 1758, implemented several strategies to strengthen his control. He (i) established a strong standing army of about 50,000 soldiers, (ii) reduced the influence of the Nayar aristocracy, previously relied upon for military support, and (iii) fortified the northern boundary of his kingdom, known as the "Travancore line". Additionally, he supported the Syrian Christians, a significant trading community, to limit European trade involvement. Pepper was the main commodity, but other goods also became royal monopolies, requiring a license for trade. These policies were largely continued by his successor, Rama Varma, who ruled from 1758 to 1798 and successfully defended the kingdom against the powerful new threat of Mysore. 1.5.11 Bengal After assuming the position of Governor or Nizam of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan gradually steered Bengal towards independence from the Mughal Empire. He wielded the exceptional authority to serve as both Nazim and Diwan concurrently, a privilege that significantly bolstered his authority. Leveraging his adeptness as a proficient revenue administrator, Murshid Quli laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Bengal state. Within his province, influential intermediaries, namely landlords, assumed the role of revenue collectors, thus ascending as a new elite class alongside the burgeoning prominence of merchants and financiers. Following Murshid Quli Khan's demise in 1727, his son-in-law Shuja-ud- din assumed governance over Bengal until 1739. In that fateful year, Alivardi Khan seized power by deposing Shuja-ud-din's son, Sarfaraz, and claiming the Nawab's mantle for himself. Under the reigns of these three Nawabs, Bengal experienced prolonged periods of tranquillity and maintained a systematic administration, fostering an environment conducive to commerce and industry. It was during Alivardi's rule that Bengal nearly broke away from Mughal control. Self-Instructional Material 31 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES However, Alivardi Khan encountered formidable challenges from external forces, most notably the Marathas, whose incursions posed a significant threat. Eventually, Alivardi opted for a compromise with the Marathas, agreeing to pay them Chauth and relinquish control over the province of Orissa. Nevertheless, Maratha raids inflicted substantial damage on Bengal's trade, particularly disrupting commerce with northern and western India. Alivardi Khan designated his son, Siraj-ud-Daula, as his successor before his death in 1756. However, contention arose over Siraj-ud-Daula's ascension, exacerbated by factionalism among courtiers who viewed the ambitious and impulsive young Nawab as a threat. This internal strife weakened Bengal's administration, providing an opportune moment for the English East India Company to establish its influence. The infamous conspiracy of Plassey in 1757 marked the Company's decisive intervention, ultimately leading to the downfall of Siraj-ud-Daula's rule. Bengal, under the leadership of Murshid Quli Khan and later Alivardi Khan, became a prosperous and autonomous region. The fertile delta region supported a thriving agrarian economy, with rice and other crops forming the backbone of local wealth. Additionally, Bengal’s strategic location and extensive river network facilitated a booming trade, both inland and overseas. The rise of a wealthy merchant class and the development of artisanal industries, particularly textiles, provided a strong economic base that supported the independent Nawabs of Bengal. The region’s economic prosperity and efficient administration enabled it to resist Mughal central control and maintain its autonomy until the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The decline of the Mughal Empire was significantly influenced by the rise of these regional powers, each of which established firm political control based on dynamic social and economic foundations. Hyderabad, Mysore, the Sikhs, and the Jats each developed strong local economies and social structures that acted as centrifugal forces, drawing authority away from the central Mughal administration. By leveraging their economic resources, administrative Self-Instructional reforms, and military innovations, these regional powers were able to assert 32 Material Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi India In The Eighteenth Century: Background, Debates their independence and contribute to the fragmentation and decentralization of NOTES the Mughal Empire. Understanding these dynamics provides a comprehensive view of the complex factors that led to the decline of Mughal central authority and the emergence of powerful regional states in eighteenth-century India. Refer to Lesson 2 for a detailed discussion on Supremacy of the East India Company in the governance of Bengal. 1.6 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE The most significant event in the politics of the 17th and 18th centuries was the rise and expansion of British power in India. This marked the start of a new lesson in Indian history. Here, we'll explore how the British arrived in India and how they extended their influence. 1.6.1 From Business Company to Political Power In the mid-18th century, the English East India Company underwent a significant transformation, evolving from a mere trading enterprise into a formidable political force. Since its inception on December 31, 1600 CE, until 1744 CE, the Company has steadily expanded its trade and influence across India. To counter the rising dominance of the Portuguese and Dutch, the Company adopted a strategy of both warfare and infiltration within the Mughal court. By the late 18th century, the only major rival to the English East India Company in India was the French East India Company, with whom they engaged in conflict after entering the fray relatively late. The genesis of the British Empire is commonly traced back to 1757, a pivotal year marked by the Company's victory over the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. Prior to this triumph, the stage was set in South India, where the British honed their military prowess and diplomatic skills in clashes with the French Company during the Carnatic Wars (1744-1763), spanning a quarter of Self-Instructional a century. Despite its newfound political clout, the English East India Company Material 33 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  History of India: 1700-1857 NOTES had maintained its identity as a trading entity for 150 years. However, the events of the 18th century would propel it towards a trajectory of imperial expansion and dominance in the Indian subcontinent. What was the reason for the increase in its political aspirations during this time? The reason for the expansion of European companies in India from 1730 was the expansion of European production and trade and the rise of aggressive national states in Europe. The decline of Mughal dominance in India obviously provided a great opportunity for the spread of the influence of these companies. The Company's desire to earn more revenue from taxes led it to establish an empire. The Company needed more money to maintain its business and pay the salaries of its armies and to meet this need it found the best way to acquire some territories. The company's double selfishness was fulfilled in its conquest of Bengal. On one hand he provided protection to his business and on the other hand he took control over the revenue of Bengal. His aim was to collect the extra revenue of Bengal and spend it on the goods of Bengal. The price of goods obtained from Bengal increased from 400,000 pounds in 1765 to 1 million pounds by the end of the 1770s. 1.6.2 Anglo-