Understanding Societies Short Notes PDF

Understanding societies ======================= SHORT NOTES 1. **INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION** Industrialization Phase 1 The industrial revolution, a massive economic (increased capital control and labour division), technological, and social change, led to the UK becoming a manufacturing economy, JAR...

Understanding societies ======================= SHORT NOTES 1. **INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION** Industrialization Phase 1 The industrial revolution, a massive economic (increased capital control and labour division), technological, and social change, led to the UK becoming a manufacturing economy, JARY & JARY. Fernand Braudel explains how Britian led this shift, which occurred in [2 main stages]: the cotton industry & metal production (increased used of iron). The revolution was based on the application of **steam power** to machinery. The steam engine, improved by James Watt, was used for production and transportation (instead of human and animal strength). Large scale production reduced costs such as food Industrialization phase 2 - rise of railways - UK surpassed France/Russia in iron production Industrialisation process industrialization is the transformation of societies primarily based in [agriculture and handicrafts] into ones centred around manufacturing & extractive [industries]. An industrial society, as defined by Collins, emerges form the process of industrialisation and modernisation. Saint-Simon coined this term to reflect the growing significance of manufacturing in 18th century Europe. An industrial society is committed to, mass production, cheaper prices, creation of efficiency, technological modernisation etc. Impact: **social changes** such as urbanization, unemployment, bureaucracy, class conflict, secularization, mass education and the liberal democracy. THE BIRTH OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology emerged from the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in Europe, aiming to understand and predict the consequences of these changes. Fathers of sociology included Comte, who coined the term and looked to create a science of society to explain universal laws of social order. Thus, uncovering the laws that govern human society would help us shape our destiny & improve the welfare of humanity. **Marx's** analysis of the situation transformed '[Alienation]' into a sociological concept (1844) -- Alienation a restraint to the individual's opportunity of self-fulfilment. - Workers in a capitalist system became estranged from - Their productive activity, - The final product, - Their fellow workers - Their own human potential **Durkheim** discussed the matter of the division of Labour in society (1893) While believing that the positive aspects of the division of labour outweighed the problems, he speaks of [Anomie'], meaning a social dislocation that is likely to occur when social change is too rapid. **Weber** will avoiding a general evolutionary sequence studies [rationalisation] (the science mode of things). Are there any emotions involved? - He is concerned with the "iron cage" created by bureaucracy. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES set of ideas that explain how society works. They [differ] in subject matter and theoretical approach: - consensus perspectives emphasising shared interest (Functionalism), - conflict perspectives emphasising conflict between social groups (Marxism & Feminism), - macro theories focusing on society as a whole and its major institutions, - and micro theories like [interactionism] focusing on smaller groups and meaning construction C. Wright Mills - Sociological Imagination -- linking history & personal experience. 2. **INDUSTRIALISM** Industrialism is an economic system based on mechanised industry, with typical characteristics including a factory system, mechanization of production, specialized division of labour, cultural rationalization, bureaucracy, and urbanisation. The concept of division of labour This has been closely connected to specialization, skills, output, and profit. Early classical economists used the term to describe specialization in workshops and factory systems, highlighting the advantages of increased efficiency and productivity. Adam smith explains how output in a workshop might be optimised by the minute division of tasks. Taylorism, developed in the 1890s, aimed to optimize production organisation through scientific management principles, separating work into routine operations, standardizing each operation and separating conception from execution. For instance, the FORD Car Plant in Detroit [applied and intensified Taylorism] on assembly lines, proposing mass production of a standardized product at a price that would generate mass consumption. This system implies capital-intensive, large-scale plants, rigid hierarchical and bureaucratic managerial structures, semi-skilled labour performing repetitive tasks, and discipline of scientific management. The division of labour in society; distinction between technical and social - Technical division of labour involves the specialization of productive tasks, characterized by segmented and unequal labour markets, power structures, and job skill hierarchies. - Social division of labour includes: 1. occupational specialization in society as a whole end including sectoral patterns of employment, and international division of labour, which creates uneven development in third world countries. 2. the separation of social life into societal institutions such as family, state & economy. Social differentiation, a process occurring in societies as they grow and complexity, involves the specialization of institutional activities into two or more separate activities. This specialization of functions in society is a result of social evolution, with the ex-separation and specialization of the economic function of production from the institution of the family, which retains reproduction and infant socialization. Durkheim's division of labour in society Durkheim emphasized the importance of [morality] in transforming society. Morality is what keeps society together to build a good life. 3 main themes: importance of sociology as an empirical science the rise of the individual and the formation of a new social order The sources and character of moral authority in society He argued that society is a structure that exists beyond individuals and has an objective reality beyond their lives and perceptions. Society and social structures are formed through **patterns of human behaviour** and are shaped by cultural norms, values, and religious beliefs.\ Durkheim argued that individual members of society build a personality by internalizing social facts, drawing their essential humanity from society that nurtures (supports) them. Society regulates human beings through **moral discipline**, and the least regulated suffer the highest rates of suicide. Thus, when people observe order in their life or when they are tempted and feel the pull of morality, they are **experiencing the effect of society**. \ \ Durkheim faced a [dilemma]: why does the individual depend more upon society while becoming more autonomous? He proposed that the solution is a transformation of social solidarity due to the steadily growing development of the division of labour.\ \ **Functional independence** was also a key theme in Durkheim\'s work, as modernity rests far less on moral consensus (foundations of traditional societies) and more on functional independence. People depend more on strangers they trust less to secure the goods and services they need, and Durkheim argued that this is because they need them. The moral consensus that forms the basis of traditional cultures is less relevant to modernity. SOCIAL INETGRATION & SOCIAL SOLIDARITY -- DURKHEIM Durkheim\'s theory of social integration and social solidarity focuses on two forms: - **mechanical**; predominant in simple and less advanced societies and is based on the similarity and common experience of individuals, as well as shared beliefs and values. In industrialization and urbanization, the division of labour leads to specialization of tasks and increasing social differentiation, breaking down mechanical solidarity. - **Organic**; ideally occurring in modern advanced societies and is based on the complementarities of individuals, recognizing the importance of each other\'s contributions. Durkheim viewed division of labour as positive but also warned against \'anomie\', a social dislocation that is likely to occur when social change is too rapid. **Anomie** Anomie is a condition in society where there is little consensus, lack of certainty of values or goals, and a loss of effectiveness in the normative and moral framework that regulates collective and individual life. Durkheim's view of nature is based on Thomas Hobbes' tradition, which states that there is no limit to desires, ambitions or needs of individuals. Durkheim believes that the **state of nature is a state of war**, and that **conflict is inevitable** (inescapable) without a common power to keep people in awe. He also believes that there is **justice**, and that **life is short and harsh.** Durkheim believes that the required limit to desires and ambitions must be socially produced when society fails to provide this limiting framework of social norms, leading to unhappiness and social disorder. Anomie can arise from: - An upward spiralling of social expectations - From more adverse conditions. The process of rapid and intense [social change brought by industrialization] leads to the disruption of everyday patterns of behaviour, the breakdown of the normative framework, and the lack of clear goals and values. 3. **URBANISM** Urbanism is the study of unique social characteristics, including impersonality. [Life before the city:] Urbanism began with the appearance of first human settlements around. The first recorded city was Jericho in Palestine. Back then cities were in areas of fertile land and agricultural surplus which released workers for specialized trades. Cities depended on a flow of goods from the country, communication & technology. Pre-industrial European cities began around 1800BC, - with Crete being the first recorded pre-industrial city. - Rome spread its language, arts, and technology to Europe, northern Africa and Middle East - Post-Roman decline: population loss as cities shrank due to defensive walls. The second urban revolution It was well underway in Europe by 1750, with the process of industrialization generating rapid urbanization. Large numbers of people were attracted from the countryside to start living in cities, **to factory work**. The 'pull' of work in factories was pointed up by a 'push' of landowners to fence off more land to turn it into grazing land for sheep -- [a source of wall for textile industry. ] The urbanisation process has a growing influence on society, with many people leaving agricultural work behind to work on the aggregate line. This has introduced problems like poverty, crime, pollution and disease. **Urban sociology** focuses on social relationships and structures in cities. Early sociologists focused on the urban dimension of the city within the broader compass of sociological theorising. Tonnies views urbanization as destructive of community, as it undermines the strong social fabric of family and tradition, which leads to a **loss of mutuality**. Gemeinschaft (community) relationships: In modern societies, people live amongst strangers, ignore those they pass on the street, and trust is hard to come by. [In contrast], Gesellschaft (impersonal relationships), or association/society, refers to relationship characteristic of modern urban industrial societies, where the division of labour is advanced. Tonnies hopes for a social organisation that would combine modern rationality and collective responsibility. Chicago school made urban studies a distinct sub-discipline, focusing on issues of social order and organisation within the city and different parts of the city. Urban ecology: - Studies city life adaptation to the environment - Social differentiation is key to human adjustment in urban settings Urbanism is considered the dominating feature of modern society, as it is more important than industrialization or capitalism since it created a change in cites and society. Impacts of Urban sociology: - weakens bonds of kinship and traditional social bonds - encourages individualism, superficial relationship However, on a [positive note] he noticed that modern cities were centres of freedom, tolerance and progress. Lefebvre argues that urban sociology was an apology for capitalism, as it failed to examine the ways in which space is produced and distributed in capitalist societies. 4. **CAPITALISM** Capitalism is a mode of production; a system of market exchange and making more profit. The capitalist labour contract involves the exchange of labour for wages between workers and capitalists, JARY AND JARY. Commodities are produced in a competitive free market, with profit appropriated by capital owners. Capital accumulation of capital (Marxism) is the process by which capitalism expands, by employing labour to create surplus value to create new capital. Key characteristics: - Dynamic and innovative; technological advancements driven by competition - Efficient production: goods must be made cheaply and efficiently to survive in the market. Adam smith argued that the **free market**, guided by [the invisible hand], ensures efficient resource allocation: - Consumers pay based on the perceived benefit - Producers sell based on production costs - Limited government intervention is required - The market self-adjusts based on consumer demand. Early industrial capitalism in Britian and the USA exemplified pure, classical, laissez-faire capitalism: - No government interference - Competition on costs. Karl Marx critiqued capitalism in **Das Kapital**. His ideal economy would produce, according to the directives and distribute resources according to the needs of the public. The key to Marxian thinking is the idea of social conflict such as the clash between social classes. Hegel developed the idea of dialectical change (struggle of opposites) and applied it to the history of human society. Dialectic change continues until destination of progress is reached. The engine of change in history is the result of new forces of production due to technological advancements and conflict between economic groups. The stages of societal development are: 1. Primitive communism 2. Ancient civilizations 3. Feudalism 4. Capitalism 5. Socialism/communism. [Alienation] (religious concept) refers to workers who are disconnected from their labour, products, and humanity under capitalism. Alienation, in Marx, is the experience of isolation resulting from powerlessness. Work becomes dehumanizing and solely profit-driven. In Marx's view, productive work is the most vital human activity -- focusing on material conditions. Weber critiqued Marx's economic determinism and emphasized ideas and values (idealism): - Religious beliefs, especially protestant ethics, influenced capitalism's development - Modern societies are increasingly shaped by rationalization (efficiency, science and bureaucracy). Rationalization transforms institutions, prioritizing technical knowledge and efficiency over tradition or emotion. Max Weber's [social action theory], understood the power of the economic and technological but argued that ideas, have a transforming power. [Ideology] in Marx is an integrated system that is external to and using force of people. This system masks reality used by agents e.g. law and religion who carry out its dictates to alter the thoughts and actions of such members. Cultural 'superstructure' of ideas reflects economic domination and subordination. Camera obscura: the agents of ideology conceal the true nature of the relationship and invert it to protect and reaffirm the capitalist mode. Ruling class ideology becomes the false consciousness of the working class, making people see the exploitative situation as natural and rightful. Polarization refers to religious beliefs which influenced capitalism's development. Marx argues that private property and production means create a [fundamental contradiction] in Capitalist society, where a minority, the Bourgeoisie, can control and enjoy the fruits of the majority, [leading to social change]. Bureaucracy is the only way of organising large numbers effectively and therefore inevitably expands with economics and political growth. Development of capitalism -- it evolved from mercantilism which focuses on wealth accumulation; capital emphasizes wealth creation and economic growth. **5. LIBERAL DEMOCRACY** Democracy implies a system of rule by the people, but interpretations vary across political ideological (liberal, socialist, communist, etc.) Models of democracy: - Classical democracy: based on the principle of popular self-government. - Protective democracy rooted in the individualist assumptions of liberalism. (government should not interfere) - Development democracy concerned with broadening the scope of popular participation - People's democracy pays attention to the distribution of class power Debates about the nature of democracy tend to focus on 3 central issues: 1. Who are the people? Who qualifies for participation? 2. How should the people rule? Direct participation, representation. 3. What matters is it appropriate to decide collectively through use of democratic process? Distinguishing collective issues from individual concerns e.g. welfare policies. Liberal democracy central features: - representative democracy - universal suffrage - electoral choice - competition History of Liberal Democracy: It emerged post-Enlightenment and French Revolution, rejecting monarchs\' \"divine right.\" [Central principles]: Liberty and equality, driven by public participation and economic shifts. The Collapse of Communism Causes: - economic inefficiency - lack of legitimacy - rise of nationalism and social movements. Gorbachev\'s Perestroika (restricting)and avoidance of repression led to the disintegration of the USSR. Broader failures included economic inefficiency, poor healthcare, and inability to sustain the Cold War arms race. Nationalist and democratic forces (e.g. Poland supported by the Catholic church) reduced Stalinism. The Triumph of Liberal Democracy Fukuyama's Thesis: history hasn't ended because it has collapsed but rather because it has arrived at its final purpose. Ideology is the balance between freedom and equality. Influenced by thinkers like Hegel, who viewed history as progress toward rationality and freedom. Like Hegel, Marx also believed in a dialectical process, but the end point he foresaw was communism not liberalism. Marx's vision of communism as the final stage was refuted by real-world failures. Fukuyama's theory is based on 2 arguments 1. economics 2. struggle for recognition Criticism of Fukuyama: - claims of liberal democracy's ultimate triumph are seen as overambitious. - Capitalism's reliance on constant innovation suggests history is ongoing - scientific advancements could disrupt his \"end of history\" thesis. 6. **POST MODERNITY** Post-modernity is the cultural and ideological configuration, distinguishing it from the modern world - Globalisation - Post-industrial - Post-capitalist - Post-structuralist - Post-enlightenment - Post-history [Phases of societal development] - Pre-modern society which involved different types of societies such as feudal, agrarian, pastoral, hunting and gathering societies. Characteristics: non-industrial, non-capitalism, rural and slow social change. - Modern society; the overall societal transformation. It is the replacement of traditional society by modern social forms. Cultural concepts underlying modernity: - Belief in the possibility of human progress - Belief in human rights - belief in rationality Lee and Newby identified 4 main transformations: - Industrialism - Capitalism - Urbanism - Liberal democracy Underlying the modernisation [process]: - Enlightenment; development of the rational scientific thought and technology to solve human problems. Modern ways of thinking are usually seen as having their origins in the enlightenment (age of reason). This has challenged the traditional look about religion, society and culture. 10 key elements of enlightenment: - Reason - Empiricism - Science - Universalism - Progress - Individualism - Toleration - Freedom - Uniformity of human nature - Secularism - Industrial revolution is the massive and interrelated economic, technological and social changes in which the UK became a manufacturing economy based on new machine technology and factory system. - French revolution; political and social modernisation. Napolean has spread the ideals of revolution and from then laws, customs and feelings were permanently affected. Goethe and Hegel supported Napolean as they saw him as the soul of the world on horseback. Th great revolution gains its significance because it entails radical political and social reforms. The modern definition of monarchy has evolved to include a more progressive approach, with the French case focusing on the uprooting of the old nobility, destruction of church power, confiscation and distribution of lands, and eventual destruction. French revolution is important because: - It changed the way of doing politics - It converted the idea of nationalism - It instigated the reactions of conservatism - Post modern society depend less on manufacturing. There was a rise of new industries such as production, consumption and leisure. Post modernity is the cultural and ideological configuration. The postmodern economy focused on media-driven consumption which has influenced the consumer behaviour. Thus, money is a power which dominates the material lives of human beings. Post-industrial society is the declining dependence of societies on manufacturing industry, the rise of new industries and the role of knowledge in production, consumption and leisure. The 4^th^ industrial revolution Klaus Schwab speaks of the coming of a 4^th^ industrial revolution which will alter the way we live, work and relate to one another. These **4** revolutions are: 1. Used water and steam power to mechanize production 2. Used electric power to create mass production 3. Used electronics and information technology to automate production 4. Used AI, robotics and biotechnology 4^th^ revolution [impact areas]: Identity, Ownership, Consumption, Learning, Relationships & Health. 4^th^ revolution [opportunities]: Efficiency, Economic growth, Healthcare, Transportation and communication (costs will drop), democracy. 4^th^ revolution [threats]: Inequality, Government control; increase their control over populations, Privacy; tracking and sharing of information about us, Terrorism: fear will arise as individuals and small groups join states in being capable of causing mass harm & Human augmentation. Post capitalist society in which owners of capital have conceded power to professional managers. Post modernity critiques - Postmodern theorists tend to argue that the enlightenment project abandoned. People no longer believe in progress, power of science, rationalism and optimism. Bauman's view: - state of mind marked by destructiveness and destruction. Postmodernity does not seek to substitute one truth for another, but instead braces itself for a life without rules, standards, and ideals. It condemns everything and proposes nothing. Liquid society is characterized by instability, adaptability, and individual responsibility. In this context, unity is diminished, and the resolution of conflicts generated by volatile circumstances is shifted onto individual shoulders. 1. **ORGANISATIONAL BEHVAIOUR -- INFLUENCING FACTORS** The place of work is influenced by various factors, including - legal frameworks, - technology, - and market forces. Maltese law is highly influenced by EU directives, which affect the benefits of working from home and the need for organizations to prepare themselves for virtual environments. Technology is changing the requirements of employees, and the market exerts pressure on wages. Employment is a crucial aspect of managing change and adapting to new technologies.\ \ Employability is essential for employees to enter, stay in, and progress in the world of work. There are [two types] of employment: - profession (high profile white-collar occupations that requires extensive formal training) - self-employment (earning a living without working for an organization). Also defined as contract of service. The [dual labour market] refers to - primary jobs that provide extensive benefits and high income/job security, - secondary jobs provide minimal benefits and low wages. There are [three basic ideal types of orientation to work]: - Instrument orientation - focuses on earning a living rather to enhance self-fulfilment. This is linked to Alienation experienced by shop floor workers. - Bureaucratic orientation - sees work as a central life interest and promotion - Solidaristic orientation - traditional workers who enjoy rewards beyond money and their life outside the workplace. Maslow's hierarchy of needs Marxist perspective: he states that work is the most important activity as it is an opportunity for self-development. He adds that workers are considered as objects used by capitalists to make profit. He states that the individual is alienated from: 1. the product of their labour 2. their coworkers 3. their own human potential Conflict of work can arise from various sources, such as low productivity, absenteeism, high labour turnover, work to rule, industrial sabotage, mass media use, and strikes. Employers have a big responsibility to [address these conflicts], such as harassment, discrimination, decreasing conditions of work, changing conditions without consultation, interpretation of collective agreements, conciliation/individual tribunals, and health and safety issues.\ \ [Human resource management] is a strategic and reasonable approach to managing employees as the most valuable resource of an organization to achieve business objectives. An integrated approach to HR includes: - vertical integration emphasized the link between human resource strategy and practices to the strategy of the organisation. - horizontal integration emphasises the need to link the various human resource practices together. Various forces, such as economic forces, political forces, cultural forces, and legal forces, also play a role in shaping the place of work. 2. **CULTURE** Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group from another. It involves group needs, task needs and personal needs. Forces of change: Legal, Demographic, Social & Economical Culture involves: - exposed values -- values championed by a company's leadership - artifacts -- style, myths, technologies, surroundings etc. - basic assumptions - underlying determinants of an organisations' attitudes Hofstede dimensions of national culture: - Power distance -- acceptance and expectation of unequal power distribution among less powerful members. - Uncertainty avoidance -- society's tolerance for uncertainty & ambiguity in unstructured situations - Individualism vs collectivism -- [individualist] societies have loose ties, with everyone expected to care for themselves. [collectivist] societies have strong, cohesive in groups who protect individuals in exchange for loyalty. - Masculinity vs femininity -- masculine countries may be assertive whilst feminist countries may be caring. Force field analysis identify the critical forces. Change can create instability and if not properly managed, change can decrease morale. Lewin's 3 step Model: - Unfreezing -- prepare to change - Changing -- developing new responses. This period can be a time of confusion. - Refreezing -- introducing new responses Resistance to change: - Logical; time required to adjust and relearn however there's the possibility of losing certain benefits. - Psychological -- fear of the unknown - Sociological -- opposing group values and political partnerships Overcoming resistance to change suggests building trust, involving participation and introducing symbolic change. Kotter's 8 step model: 1. Create a sense of urgency, using significant opportunities to inspire change 2. Build a guiding coalition; assemble a group to lead and support change 3. Form a strategic vision; shape a vision to guide change efforts 4. Communicate the vision; identify & engage those ready to drive change 5. Remove obstacles 6. Generate short term wins 7. Sustain acceleration 8. Institutionalize change; continue to support change and ensure planning. 3. **ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT** Organizational development focuses on planning and implementing programs to improve the effectiveness of an organization and respond to change and changes for the better. The [3E\'s] (economic, efficiency, and effectiveness) are [fundamental actions for management], with efficiency being the relationship between inputs and outputs, and effectiveness being the extent to which an individual manages to achieve goals. Organisational development is based on the [concepts of behavioural scientists], such as - motivational theories, - power (strategic leadership), - and humanistic-democratic ideals. Key features of an organization include definition of authority, responsibilities, delegation, layout, task allocation, and direction of activities towards achieving goals. Activities in organisations: Task allocation is split into 2 which are supervision and coordination. Strategies can be positive or defensive. Adaptive responsive structural change that stays with current customs and practices and Create Innovation goes beyond the existing practices and procedures.\ \ Uniformity includes standardization, common procedures, central administration WHILST Benefits includes economies of scale, specialisation and control of process. Max Weber\'s theory of authority structures and the source of authority are based on law, rules, and regulations. - Individual obeying commands splits into 2: power and authority He added that all organisations are rationally designed (don't look at faces) to achieve specific goals. Types of authority: 1. Charismatic authority is based on personal qualities of a leader 2. Traditional authority is based on precedent and inherited status 3. Rational-legal authority is based on rules and regulations Managerial roles 1. Interpersonal roles - Figurehead -- representation of the organisation - Leader -- balances organisational needs - Liaison -- maintains networks 2. Monitoring & disseminating functions -- managers monitor and share relevant info. #### #### Conflict in Organisations: Functional Conflict encourages motivation, commitment, high-quality work, and personal satisfaction. Dysfunctional Conflict leads to stress, high turnover, sabotage, and low work quality. #### #### Perspectives on Conflict 1. Pluralist Perspective: - Power is dispersed among different groups. - Focus on compromise rather than harmony. 2. Unitary Perspective: - Single authority, unified loyalty. - Paternalistic approach; assumes no room for conflict. #### [Dilemma] in Employment: Employees aim for higher wages, but employers seek to keep wages low for profits. Employees must balance demands to avoid jeopardizing their jobs or bankrupting the organization. #### #### Nancy Foy values [networks] as crucial to organisational success since they are informal, flexible and dynamic which they all create a balance of control between management. #### Poor organization leads to: - Low motivation and morale. - Decision-making delays. - Increased conflict and communication issues. - Higher costs. Organisations naturally shift between centralisation and decentralisation without achieving perfect equilibrium BUSINESS AND PUBLIC LIFE IN THEIR SOCIAL AND CULTURAL SETTINGS Sociology is a [descriptive] science as it explains how things happen to be. Classical theories: - [Conflict theory] by Karl Marx -- economic critique of society. - Class- conflict theories - Race-conflict theories - Gender-conflict theories Capitalism was the dominant mode of production whom ultimate source of profit is the surplus value generated in the labour process by workers to earn a living. - [Functionalism] by Durkheim -- society as a complex system. These parts are known as social structures which promote stability (e.g. families, schools, religion). Like Marx, Durkheim considered the organisation of work as fundamental to society. - [Symbolic interactionism] by Max Weber focuses on the individuals' social situation. Economic enterprise is an expression of rational actions in relation to goal, participating in a labour market and working for money to earn a living. Bureaucracies are a good example. Contemporary theories - Feminism describes gender inequalities in different institutions - Postmodern societies are characterised by fragmentation and difference. They suggest that people must understand the social world from a relativist perspective. [Socialisation] is the process by which individuals, through interaction acquire knowledge, language, social skills and values to conform to the norms and roles required for integration into a group or community. Agents: - Primary socialisation; Family - Secondary socialisation takes place in childhood and into maturity and normally happens in schools, with peers and media. - Reinforcement stage is achieved in adulthood, the personal acquisition and assimilation of culture. [Stratification] refers to structured inequalities between individuals and groups in a society. It is not simply a matter of class but is shaped by **status** which is expressed through people's lifestyle. 4 basic systems of stratification: 1. Slavery 2. Caste 3. Estates 4. Class: large scale of people who share common economic resources According to Marx's theory, in industrial societies we have 2 main classes: - Capitalists; own the means of production - Proletariat; working class Class division in the developed world: - Upper class - elite wealth. This can change by time. - Middle class cover a broad spectrum of people. These people sell their mental skills to earn a living. - Working class includes people who do factory work - Underclass -- the socially excluded since they are low-income earners. Social mobility refers to the movement between socio-economic positions a. Vertical mobility -- moving up or down the socio-economic scale b. Lateral mobility -- geographical movement such as migration c. Intragenerational mobility -- how far people move up or down the social scale d. Intergenerational mobility -- mobility across generations [Culture] refers to shared beliefs, norms, and behaviours shaped by social and natural environments. Culture is universal; therefore, they evolve and change. Behind every culture there is a form of religion which establishes the unquestionable basic elements. Religion is very complex. Sociologists defined religion from 3 perspectives: 1. [Social conflict theory] by Marx is seen as an agent of social stratification. In modern societies, the new ruling elites make use of various idolatries, to ensure continuous economic growth. 2. [Functionalism] by Durkheim - 3 functions of religion are: - Social cohesion - Social control - Provide a sense of purpose in life. Thus, Durkheim defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, which unite in one single moral community called a church. 3. [Symbolic interactionism] by Weber influences economic systems (e.g. Protestant ethic). He studied that religion is the result of the emergence of capitalism and Calvinism encouraged hard work and discouraged indulgence. Types of religions: - Theistic -- believe in the existence of one (monotheistic) or more divinities (polytheistic) - Ethical -- living a good life free from evil such as Buddhism - Magic -- the belief in some form of supernatural powers. These people can bend everything to their will. - Idolatries -- belief that something is the source of happiness of meaning of life. The object of worship is called and idol not god. These believers are ready to sacrifice everything in their life to attain it. E.g. money and glory Businesses leave their impact on political institutions, decision making and poly making. Planned economy is when state intervention is very high whilst free market economy refers to minimal state intervention (actions taken by government). Political economic spectrums USA EUROPE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ LEFT WING = LIBERALS which favours government intervention, get an equal pay for women. LEFT WING = different forms of socialism & communism. They focus on equality and rights. RIGHT WING = CONSERVATIVES take a more laissez-faire (hands free) approach and government regulations are harmful. RIGHT WING = Christian democrats, liberals & nationalism [Keynesian economic theory] become dominant in Western Europe after the WW2 to stimulate national economies to restart again. State intervention. The promoters of the [Neoclassical economic theory] wanted to revive aspects of the classical theory to safeguard individual liberty, as a rection to communist regimes. This gave rise to neoliberalism. Green economy promotes sustainability. Movements: A political party is an organisation whose main goal is to acquire power by placing members in position of authority by running for elections. Whilst a trade union is an association of workers and safeguard their rights. There are also employer associations and interest groups (influence political decisions by supporting candidates). Liberal democracy Post democracy Parliamentary government states that the government is the executive of the parliament whilst the presidential government refers to the government which is more an administrative institution rather than an executive one. Post democracy: Colin Croch businesses try to influence the political agenda by financial political parties. Sex refers to the [physical] characteristics which make us male or female whilst gender refers to the [psychological], social and cultural differences between male and female. Gender socialisation refers to the learning of gender roles via social agencies. Hence, gender differences are determined by culture which lead to equality. Equality: - Having -- access to material and immaterial goods - Doing -- can do the same things as men - Being -- values equally as men Women entering the workforce can bring up various challenges regarding pay, roles and opportunities. Feminism: - [Liberal] feminists work through the existing system to bring about reforms in a gradual way against sexism. - [Socialist/Marxist] feminists consider patriarchy and capitalism as the root causes of gender inequality. Engels states that capitalism has raised the patriarchy. Capitalism relies on women to keep up the house and care for family. Socialist feminists called for the restricting of the family institution to end domestic slavery and introduce collective means to care for children and household maintenance. - [Radical] feminists focus on patriarchy's systemic domination. They consider the family as the primary source of women's oppression. The 'objectification' of women through media, fashion and advertising turns women into sexual objects to please and entertain men. Racism at the workplace [Race] is based on physical traits whilst [ethnicity] is based on society & culture. Ethnic groups are 'imagined communities' and their existence depends on the self-identification of their members. [Prejudice] refers to opinions & attributes held by members of one group towards another and they are firmly grounded in stereotypes. Whilst [discrimination] is the actual behaviour rooted in prejudice. Race discrimination is experienced on the labour market and on the place of work. E.g. when doing interviews to employ new workers. [Institutional racism] implies that racism pervades all institutions which promote policies that favour certain groups while discriminating against others such as police & healthcare. The new form of racism is based on cultural racism. [Ethnocentrism] is a tendency to evaluate the culture of others in terms of one's own culture. Whilst [group closure] refers to groups maintain boundaries by separating themselves from others. This process can lead to inequalities in wealth, power and social standing. This is knowns as resource allocation. Theories: - CONFLICT theories by Marx are concerned with links between racism and prejudice and relationships of power and inequality. Thus, racism was a product of the capitalist system. - Critical Race Theory are mainly seeking to transform unequal relations between ethnic groups Outsourcing labour -- country experiences a high rate of economic growth & the local population is not producing enough workforce thus it will call for foreign workers. Migrant workers and third country nationals fill labour gaps and face injustice. Work identity Bauman \- Consumption emblem limitless reconstruction of self \- Facilitates self-expression \- Shift from the values of work ethic -\> aesthetic consumption Ransome affluent societies enjoy complex consumption. \- Simple consumption: fulfils basic needs \- Complex consumption: fulfils non-essential needs and enables self-expression Heelas \- Work becomes more meaningful as it allows them to cultivate their identity The family Agrarian context \- Numerous extended family \- Producing household \- Elder brothers/sisters took career of younger sisters Industrial context \- Nuclear family \- Usually composed of 2 members: 2 parents 2 children \- Father bread winner, mother caregiver Post-industrial context \- No typical family \- Nuclear family is still common \- Other types: single-parent, homosexual families \- Children = economic burden Work-life balance High commitment \- Men would accept long hours \- Women had domestic responsibilities \- Men fulfilled the ideal requirements because women had unpaid work Finding the right balance \- There is an increased preference for more symmetrical allocation \- But women continue to remain primarily responsible for children (even in full-time employment) Overwork culture \- Work is becoming invasive \- Long hours \- Emerging care deficit Globalisation \- The increasing multidirectional flows of things, people, and information across the globe \- Flow of information increasing our awareness of different cultures \- We are more aware of what is happening around the world \- Cultures influence each other \- Western culture, the dominant culture is advertised through social media, fashion, music, TV Neoliberalism \- A type of liberalism which favours a global free market, no government regulation \- Liberalism is a political philosophy \- Neoliberalism is an economic philosophy \- No state is purely neoliberal Transnational corporations \- An organisation involved with the international production of goods or services or foreign trade Stage 1: Used to develop economic activities in the territory of the state Stage 2: Erected factories in clients' territories, to avoid transportation costs Stage 3: Worldwide networks of labour Regional agreements Certain regions made trade agreements to liberalise their economies: \- Europe: EU \- America: North American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) \- Asia: Asian Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) Economic inequality is measured by the Gini coefficient. Another indicator is inflation Categories of people to be at risk or poor: \- Children (Cannot work) \- Women (Unpaid work) \- Elderly (Pensions are less than salaries) \- Minorities (Likely to have poor paying jobs) Poverty \- Economic and material deprivation \- Minimum level is called the poverty line \- Each country uses different lines depending on appropriate levels of development \- Primary needs (water, food, shelter), secondary needs (money to buy primary needs) Types of poverty: clothing \- Absolute poverty (lack of basic conditions to sustain a healthy existence) - lacking food, shelter \- Relative poverty (people living below the standards of living) - SOL varies between countries EU Statistics on income and living conditions (EU-SILC) A standardised compilation of statistics which measures: 1. income distribution 2. Relative poverty 3. Material deprivation (when a house cannot afford 5 of the material deprivation items) 4. Social exclusion Some people may be responsive for their own poverty, and others may be due to unjust socioeconomic structures. Homeless people have no address no ID card, so they cannot open a bank account. Thus it is a dependency culture. Migration \- Immigration: Italy to Malta \- Emigration: Malta to Italy \- Legal migration: movement to another country legally, \- Illegal migration: not legal \- Internal migration: movement of people within the same state Refugees and asylum seekers \- Refugees: flee their homeland and seek refuge due to fear of persecution \- Asylum seekers: has not been officially recognised by the host country Multiculturalism Assimilation: \- Immigrants abandon their customs and assimilate to those of locals \- Thus, we have a melting pot of culture Cultural pluralism \- Ethnic groups are distinct but not equal ### ### ### ### ### ### Key Themes of the Davos 2024 Report: Inequality Inc. #### #### [Inequality and Corporate Power] #### Since 2020, the wealth of the five richest billionaires has doubled, while 5 billion people have become poorer. Billionaire wealth now constitutes 43% of global financial assets. Corporate profits have surged, especially in the energy, food, and pharmaceutical sectors. 2. [Exploitation and working conditions] Ryan Brown views Amazon as a harsh and discriminating workplace whilst workers in Asia also face harsh conditions with no rest or access to basic needs like water. 3. [Monopoly Power] Monopolies dominate global markets, worsening inequality: - Big Pharma: 10 firms dominate the pharmaceutical market. - Big Tech: 90% of online searches are done via Google. - Agriculture: Two companies own over 40% of the global seed market. Monopolistic practices inflate prices and suppress wages. 4. [Corporate Practices Driving Inequality] - Low Wages: Wages fail to keep up with inflation, widening the income gap. - Tax Avoidance: Corporations exploit tax havens, depriving governments of revenue. - Privatization: Public services are commodified, excluding marginalized populations such as unaffordable private healthcare costs in India. - Climate Breakdown: Billionaires profit from industries causing environmental harm. 5. [Impact on Marginalized Groups] Women and racialized groups bear the brunt of economic disparity: - Women earn far less than men globally. - Black and Indigenous communities face disproportionate poverty and exclusion. 6. [Addressing inequality] a. Revitalize the State: Invest in public services and regulate monopolies. b. Regulate Corporations: Enforce minimum wages, cap CEO pay and break up monopolies. c. Tax the Rich: Implement permanent wealth and profit taxes. d. Reinvent Business Models: Promote worker-owned cooperatives and social enterprises. 7. [Key Figures and Statistics] - Climate Impact: The richest 1% emit as much carbon as the poorest two-thirds of humanity. - Gender Wealth Gap: Men globally own \$105 trillion more than women. - Corporate Ownership: 70% of the largest corporations have billionaire CEOs or principal shareholders.